Sailing Ships—Past and Present
By “Awake!” correspondent in Japan
HAVE you ever had the pleasure of taking a ride on a sailboat, skimming gently over the waves, the salt spray flying? Many persons find nothing more enjoyable.
But sailing has not confined itself to pleasure. For centuries, sailboats have served for fishing, cargo-carrying and other commercial purposes, and as warships. The style of boats and sails has been greatly varied according to the materials available, the body of water to be traversed, the purpose of the vessel and the skill of the boat makers.
Sailing Ships of the Past
The first vessel of which history gives any description is Noah’s ark. Present-day artists picture the ark as having a round bottom and sharp bow. The purpose of such design is to reduce friction and increase speed. However, the Bible describes the ark as being of a boxlike design. It did not have sails, masts or rudder. This was because it was not designed to move through the water, but, rather, to float on the water and carry a maximum load, as it did for five lunar months.—Gen. 7:17, 24.
God gave Noah the ark’s specifications, commanding him:
“Make for yourself an ark out of wood of a resinous tree. You will make compartments in the ark, and you must cover it inside and outside with tar. And this is how you will make it: three hundred cubits [about 450 feet, or, 137 meters] the length of the ark, fifty cubits [about 75 feet, or, 23 meters] its width, and thirty cubits [about 45 feet, or, 14 meters] its height. You will make a tsoʹhar [roof; or, window] for the ark, and you will complete it to the extent of a cubit [about 18 inches, or, 46 centimeters] upward, and the entrance of the ark you will put in its side; you will make it with a lower story, a second story and a third story.”—Gen. 6:14-16.
The Egyptians used papyrus reeds that were woven and lashed together to form a boat. Some sails were also made of papyrus. Papyrus is a tapering three-sided reed that grows to a height of eight to 16 feet (2.5 to 5 meters) in shallow water. In the year 1970, Thor Heyerdahl traveled thousands of miles across the Atlantic in a papyrus vessel, to prove the seaworthiness of such a boat. The Babylonians and Ethiopians also used reed boats. Some of these boats were round.
The Chinese junk is one of the most ancient sailboats. Yet in spite of its unwieldy appearance to Western eyes, it is quite practical. It has been said that it represents the ultimate in aerodynamic efficiency. These sailing vessels at one time controlled the Indian Ocean and during the Middle Ages sailed regularly to India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the east coast of Africa and to Aden (Yemen). In 1848 a junk even made a voyage from China to Boston, New York and London. It is not known when the Chinese junk was first used.
The Phoenicians were master seafarers, carrying on extensive trading in the Mediterranean Sea, and possibly sailing through the Strait of Gibraltar to Britain and around the African coasts. Their principal seaports were Tyre and Sidon. The Bible gives us an idea of the materials used in the construction of the Phoenician ships. It depicts the city of Tyre as a pretty sailing ship, with planks of durable juniper, a single mast from a cedar of Lebanon, and oars of massive trees of Bashan, probably oak. The prow was made of cypress wood inlaid with ivory. The sail was of colored Egyptian linen, the deck covering of dyed wool. The boat’s seams were caulked.—Ezek. 27:3-9.
During the first century of the Common Era, numerous ships sailed the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Some were quite large. The Jewish historian Josephus reports that he once sailed on a ship carrying 600 people. The apostle Paul, along with a crew and passengers—totaling about 276 persons—was shipwrecked off the island of Malta.—Acts 27:37; 28:1.
From the first century onward, wood was the main construction material. However, as early as 1829 iron made its appearance in ship construction in Great Britain. An event that possibly aided in the turnover from wood to iron was the development of the explosive shell in 1819.
But by the middle of the 19th century most countries were constructing warships of steel. Also, steel passenger ships and freighters or merchant schooners with four, five, six and, at times, seven masts began to appear. The shipping of tea, coffee, dried fruits and other perishable goods increased. Fast “clipper” ships could get them to their destination in a short time. The clippers could average 300 nautical miles (556 kilometers) per day, the best 24-hour run recorded being 436 nautical miles (807 kilometers). They were the forerunners of the sleek cargo steamers that now make the trip from Japan to the west coast of the United States in seven to ten days.
Handling the big sailing ships is not an easy job. For instance, the Nippon Maru is about 320 feet (98 meters) long. It has four masts with up to six yardarms on each mast to support huge square sails having a total area of 25,800 square feet (2,397 square meters). The crew of 150 men (including 120 cadets) must climb ladders 90 feet (27 meters) or more up to a yardarm, then walk out on a rope suspended below the yardarm. Ten crew members on one yardarm raise or lower the sail. Teamwork and coordination are a must, as a slip of the foot or a misjudgment could be fatal.
Sailing Ships of the Present
The near disappearance of the clipper ships does not mean that sailing has become obsolete. Rather, it has largely changed from a business to a sport, and many people from all walks of life are able to enjoy the thrill of being moved noiselessly over the waves of the sea.
During the first half of this century, construction materials have changed greatly. Not only steel, but also aluminum, concrete and other materials have been used to construct sailing boats. However, since World War II a new material has been in use that has advantages over the others in many respects. This material is fiber glass or glass-reinforced plastic. Steel and aluminum have rust and corrosion problems, but fiber glass does not rust, corrode or rot, though some maintenance is required, and it is more easily damaged by floating objects. At present the majority of modern sailing boats and motorboats are constructed of fiber glass.
Glass fiber looks much like closely woven cloth material. In boat construction, a mold for the fiber glass is first constructed. The mold is polished and waxed. The gel coat, which is a hard surface coating of the hull color required, is next sprayed over the waxed mold. Then layers of fiber-glass cloth are placed on the mold, and polyester resin is rolled or sprayed over the previous layers. This process is continued until the required thickness is obtained. When the resin has set, the hull is removed from the waxed mold, the deck is built, interior appointments are completed and the ballast is installed. Finally, the mast is “stepped” (placed in a socket, frame or platform for supporting its lower end) and the sails are raised. You are ready to go sailing! To a great extent, aluminum masts have replaced those made of wood; dacron sails have replaced cotton and linen ones; and stainless fittings have replaced those of iron or steel. All of this has resulted in a lighter, stronger and more durable yacht, with improved speed and beauty.
Fiber-glass construction has revolutionized the pleasure-boat industry. Construction time has been markedly reduced. The time to cut out a stem, a keel, frames and a transom, set them up and plank and caulk the seams of an average-sized wooden cruiser can run more than a month. With a fiber-glass boat, the entire hull can be constructed in less than a week. Moreover, skilled carpenters are needed to construct a wooden boat, but unskilled laborers can be used to a certain extent in fiber-glass lay-up, thereby decreasing labor cost.
Dacron and nylon are the primary materials used for cords and ropes. Lately, a new material has been developed called “kevlar.” It looks much like fiber glass and is woven into various thicknesses. Individual hairlike strands of this material, when woven together, make a cord as strong as steel. For example, a half-inch (13-millimeter) kevlar rope has a breaking strength of 25,000 pounds (11,340 kilograms), whereas half-inch galvanized steel cable breaks at only 22,800 pounds (10,342 kilograms). A 100-foot (30.5-meter) length of steel cable weighs 45.8 pounds (20.8 kilograms). The same length of kevlar weighs eight pounds (3.6 kilograms). Consequently, there has been a demand for kevlar, especially to replace steel cable and thereby decrease the weight of the sailing boat.
Basic Sailing Maneuvers
Present-day yachts are generally much smaller and simpler to handle than the sailing ships of the past. No mast-climbing is necessary, as all the sails can be controlled from the deck. In fact, many sailing yachts are rigged so that all the sails can be raised, lowered and adjusted directly from the cockpit. This makes it possible for one man to handle a yacht under way.
For those planning to learn the art of sailing, there are three basic maneuvers that they should know: how to sail (1) into the wind, (2) across the wind and (3) with the wind.
Sailing into the wind is also called sailing to windward, tacking to windward, sailing on the wind or beating to windward. To accomplish this, your boat tacks or zigzags, maintaining a 45-degree angle to the direction of the wind. This requires great skill, as the wind varies in speed and direction, and adjustments are constantly needed.
Sailing across the wind is also called reaching, as the wind is abeam (at right angles to the keel). This is the fast way to sail.
In sailing with the wind or running, the sail is almost at a right angle to the wind as the boat runs with the wind.
Tacking means turning your boat so that the wind strikes from the opposite side. Coming about is fairly easy, because the wind is coming across the bow and you are turning the prow into the wind, as in tacking to windward. But jibing can be dangerous. This is turning to steer away from the wind. In this maneuver the wind crosses the stern, whipping the sail across the boat, which could cause it to capsize. It is always wise to wear a life jacket and, if your boat capsizes, try to stay with it.
In any case, a person who ventures out on a boat should first see that it meets all the requirements of the law as to safety equipment. He should also familiarize himself with the local marine laws and should know the waterways in which he is sailing. Also, one should never attempt a sailing trip unless an experienced yachtsman is aboard.
[Diagram on page 23]
(For fully formatted text, see publication)
BASIC MANEUVERS
Tacking & Coming about
Jibing
WIND
SAILING INTO WIND
REACHING
RUNNING