application of Roman law among its provinces and colonies. Recognizing this fact, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Volume 1, page 338, says: “. . . it is not sufficient to identify Rome and Babylon. Babylon embraces more than one empire or culture. It is defined rather by dominant idolatries than by geographical or temporal boundaries. Babylon is coextensive with the kingdom of that beast which has corrupted and enslaved mankind, and whom the Lamb must conquer (Rev. 17:14) if mankind is to be freed.”

The symbol of a harlot or a fornicatrix is used frequently in the Hebrew Scriptures. The nation of Israel was warned against entering into covenant relations with the nations of Canaan because this would lead them to commit “immoral intercourse [“play the harlot,” RS] with their gods.” (Ex. 34:12-16) Both Israel and Judah apostatized from the true worship of Jehovah God and were condemned by him as having engaged in harlotry, prostituting themselves to the political nations and their gods. (Isa 1:21; Jer. 3:6-10, 13; Ezek. 16:15-17, 28, 29, 38; Hos 6:10; 7:11; 8:9, 10) It may be noted here that God was not viewing Israel or Judah as mere political entities entering into relations with other political governments. Instead God reprimanded them on the basis of their being in a sacred covenant with him, hence responsible to be a holy people devoted to him and his pure worship.—Jer. 2:1-3, 17-21.

A similar usage of this figure is found in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The Christian congregation is likened to a virgin espoused to Christ as her Head and King. (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:22-27) The disciple James warned Christians against committing spiritual adultery through friendship with the world. (Jas. 4:4; compare John 15:19.) It is reasonable to believe that the fornications of Babylon the Great and her “daughters” are of a similar nature and not some unique exception. (The term “daughters” at times is employed in the Bible to refer to the suburbs or surrounding towns of a city or metropolis, as the “dependent towns” [literally, “daughters” in Hebrew] of Samaria and Sodom; see Ezekiel 16:46-48.)

An additional significant factor is that when Babylon the Great goes down under the devastating attack of the ten horns of the symbolic wild beast, her fall is mourned by her companions in fornication, the kings of the earth, and also by the merchants and shippers who dealt with her in supplying luxurious commodities and gorgeous fineries. While these political and commercial representatives survive her desolation, notably no religious representatives are depicted as still on the scene to share in mourning her downfall. (Rev. 17:16, 17; 18:9-19) The kings of the earth are shown as having judgment executed upon them sometime after mystic Babylon’s annihilation, and their destruction comes, not from the “ten horns,” but from the sword of the King of kings, the Word of God.—Rev. 19:1, 2, 11-18.

A further distinguishing characteristic of Babylon the Great is her drunkenness, she being pictured as “drunk with the blood of the holy ones and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus.” (Rev. 17:4, 6; 18:24; 19:1, 2) She thus is the spiritual counterpart of the ancient city of Babylon, expressing the same enmity toward the true people of God. Significantly, it was to the charge of religious leaders that Jesus laid the responsibility for “all the righteous blood spilled on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah.” While those words were addressed to religious leaders from among Jesus’ own race, the Jewish nation, and while persecution against Jesus’ followers was particularly intense from that sector for a time, history shows that thereafter the opposition to genuine Christianity came from other sources (the Jews themselves suffering considerable persecution).—Matt. 23:29-35.

All the above factors are significant and they must all be considered in arriving at a true picture of symbolic Babylon the Great and what it represents.

BACA

(baʹca) [Heb., ba·khaʼʹ].

The plant that played such an important role in David’s encounter with the Philistines “in the low plain of Rephaim.” (2 Sam. 5:22-25; 1 Chron. 14:13-16) The only other reference to the plant is at Psalm 84:6: “Passing along through the low plain of the baca bushes, they turn it into a spring itself.” This may refer to the same “low plain of Rephaim” where David’s fight took place and which plain is believed to be SW of Jerusalem.

The Hebrew word used comes from a root meaning “to weep” or “to drip.” It therefore seems to indicate a plant, shrub or tree that exudes tears of gum or perhaps a milky sap. Its identification is uncertain. There is no apparent foundation for the Rabbinical view that relates it to the mulberry tree (as also translated in AV). Since balsam trees (of which there are several in the different tree families) exude gum or resin, these have been suggested by many scholars. A balsam tree of the poplar family (Populus euphratica) is recommended by some botanists, due primarily to the ease with which its leaves are stirred by any breeze, producing a rustling sound. However, the Bible does not specify how the “sound of a marching” was produced (whether by means of the leaves, the branches, or by some other part of the plant such as pods or nettles), and simply indicates that it occurred in the “tops” of the plants. It could have been a mere rustling sound that served as a signal, or, as suggested by some, it may have been a noise of some volume produced by a rushing wind that served to cover up or even to simulate the sound of a marching army.

In view of the variant opinions and lack of clear evidence as to the identity of the plant, it would seem well simply to transliterate this Hebrew word, as is done in the New World Translation, here used.

BADGER

See SEALSKIN.

BAG

In Bible times, even as today, bags were used extensively. Composed of various types of skins, cloth and woven materials, bags in ancient times were used to hold grains and food, stone weights, valuables, lumps of gold and silver, and, in later periods, minted coins. Bags used for water and wine were usually made from tanned skins of animals.—Josh. 9:4; Matt. 9:17.

Our English word “sack” is derived from the Hebrew saq and, though used in the Bible primarily with reference to sackcloth (Lev. 11:32), this Hebrew word is also used as today to refer to containers of food and grains. (Gen. 42:25, 27, 35) The Hebrew word ʼam·taʹhhath (“bag,” NW; “sack,” AV; derived from a verb meaning “to spread out”) is employed in the account concerning the visit of Joseph’s brothers to Egypt, and appears to be more or less synonymous with saq, perhaps describing the form of the “bag” rather than the material from which it was made.—Gen. 42:27, 28; 43:18-23.

When approaching his encounter with Goliath, David placed five stones in his shepherds’ bag (Heb., k^eliʹ), which receptacle is suggested to have been a sort of haversack carried across the shoulder and usually made from undressed skins of animals. (1 Sam. 17:40, 49) The Hebrew word here used is of very general meaning and more frequently refers simply to a receptacle, vessel or utensil of earthenware, wood, metal or skin.—Lev. 6:28; 11:32, 33; Num. 31:20; 1 Ki. 10:21.

Syrian army officer Naaman gave greedy Gehazi “two talents of silver in two bags [Heb., hhari·timʹ], with two changes of garments, and gave them to two of his attendants, that they might carry them.” Since a talent was equal to about 91.5 pounds (troy) or about 34.2 kilograms, it is evident that such container (hha·ritʹ) must have been of ample size