an Israelite soldier was to take as a wife had to shave her head.—Deut. 21:12.

Nebuchadnezzar’s troops experienced temporary baldness during the strenuous and difficult siege of the land city of Tyre. Their heads were made bald by the chafing of helmets and their shoulders from the rubbing of materials (for the construction of towers and fortifications). Jehovah through Ezekiel had foretold that “every head was one made bald, and every shoulder was one rubbed bare” as Nebuchadnezzar’s military force performed a “great service” in rendering God’s judgment on Tyre.—Ezek. 26:7-12; 29:17, 18.

In some places in the days of the apostles, such as in the immoral city of Corinth, women caught committing adultery or fornication were punished by having their hair shaved off. Slave girls had their hair clipped short. Paul apparently draws on this circumstance for illustration, showing that a woman in the Christian congregation who would pray or prophesy with her head uncovered, even though she had her hair as a covering, might as well go the whole way and show her shame in disrespecting God’s headship principle by having her hair completely shaved off.—1 Cor. 11:3-10; see BEARD.

BALSAM, BALSAM OF GILEAD

[Heb., beʹsem or boʹsem; tsoriʹ].

The term balsam applies to any of the many plants, shrubs and trees producing an aromatic and, commonly, oily and resinous substance. There are balsamiferous trees among the fir, spruce, poplar and other tree families. The balsamic oil is used medicinally (usually containing benzoic or cinnamic acid) and as a perfume.

Balsam plants and trees were always highly prized by the peoples of the Orient. The first mention of balsam oil occurs at Exodus 25:6 with reference to its use as an ingredient in the holy anointing oil of the tabernacle. (Also Ex. 35:8) The Hebrew word here used (beʹsem) derives from a root word (ba·samʹ), meaning “to be fragrant” or “to have a sweet odour,” and hence is sometimes translated as “perfume,” “sweet,” or “spices,” according to the context. (Ex. 30:23; Song of Sol. 4:10, 14, 16; 5:13; 6:2; 8:14) At Isaiah 3:24 its aromatic fragrance is contrasted with a “musty smell.”

The balsam used for the tabernacle service in the wilderness evidently came from outside of Palestine, perhaps from Egypt. During King Solomon’s reign the preciousness of balsam oil caused it to be ranked along with the gold and precious stones among the treasures that the queen of Sheba brought as gifts, as also in the tribute paid by the kings of many lands to the wise king in Jerusalem. (1 Ki. 10:2, 10, 25; 2 Chron. 9:1, 9, 24) It was among the precious things stored in the king’s treasure-house that Hezekiah unwisely showed to the emissaries from Babylon. (2 Ki. 20:13; 2 Chron. 32:27; Isa. 39:2) It was used in the embalming (though not in the Egyptian way) of King Asa’s body (2 Chron. 16:14) and, interestingly, our English word “embalm” appears to be originally derived from the Hebrew ba·samʹ. Esther was massaged with aromatic balsam oil during the final six-month period prior to her appearance before King Ahasuerus.—Esther 2:12.

The “balsam [Heb., tsoriʹ] in Gilead” appears to have been of a unique quality and possessed of special medicinal properties. (Jer. 8:22; 46:11) The Hebrew word used is from a root meaning “to bleed,” perhaps indicating the process by which the oil or gum was extracted or “bled” from the balsam plant. Such balsam is first mentioned as among the articles carried by the caravan of Ishmaelites coming out of the Transjordanian region of Gilead and to whom Joseph was subsequently sold. (Gen. 37:25-28) Jacob later included it in with the “finest products of the land” when sending a gift to Egypt with his returning sons. (Gen. 43:11) According to Ezekiel 27:17, the wealthy merchants of Tyre imported it from the kingdom of Judah.

References to the healing virtues of such balsam are common in ancient literature, chiefly as a cure for wounds. All references to such healing properties in the Scriptures are made by Jeremiah. He uses these, however, in a figurative sense, first when lamenting the spiritual breakdown in Judah (Jer. 8:14, 15, 21, 22; compare James 5:14, 15), then in chiding Egypt as to her vain efforts to avoid defeat by Babylon (Jer. 46:11-13), and, finally, in pronouncing God’s judgment of calamity against Babylon.—51:8-10.

Identification of the specific plants or trees represented by the Hebrew words beʹsem and tsoriʹ is not definite. The name of Gilead has been applied to a shrublike evergreen tree called Balsamodendron opobalsamum or gileadense. Its greenish-yellow oily resin is gathered by making incisions in the stem and branches, and the little balls of sap that form are later collected. While this particular tree is found chiefly in S Arabia and does not presently grow in Palestinian territory, the Jewish historian Josephus indicates that it was cultivated around Jericho in Solomon’s time, while the Greek geographer Strabo records that in Roman times it was also grown beside the Sea of Galilee.

Another balsamic plant suggested is an evergreen named Pistacia lentiscus, which produces a pale-yellow fragrant gum called “mastic,” as well as an oil used for medicinal purposes obtained from the bark, leaves and berries. Mastic continues to be used by Arabs as a flavoring agent in coffee and sweets. The tree is common in Palestine and its name in Arabic is very similar to the Hebrew tsoriʹ.

BAMOTH

(Baʹmoth) [heights, or, high place].

One of the encampment stages of the nation of Israel on its approach to the land of Canaan. (Num. 21:19, 20) Bamoth is listed as between Nahaliel and “the valley that is in the field of Moab, at the head of Pisgah.” It is probably a shortened form of Bamoth-baal.—See BAMOTH-BAAL.

BAMOTH-BAAL

(Baʹmoth-baʹal) [high places of Baal].

A town in Moab to which Balak, the king of Moab, conducted the prophet Balaam so that he might see the camp of Israel and call down a curse upon it. (Num. 22:41) Balak’s selection of this location for the enacting of the curse and the accompanying sacrifices may indicate that it was a center for Baal worship, evidently situated in an elevated place. (Num. 23:1-9) Thereafter, Bamoth-baal and other towns “on the tableland” were assigned to the tribe of Reuben as an inheritance. (Josh. 13:15, 17) In the latter part of the tenth century B.C.E. King Mesha of Moab states that he rebuilt “Beth-bamoth, for it had been destroyed.” (Line 27 of the Moabite Stone) It seems likely that Bamoth, Bamoth-baal and Beth-bamoth were all names of the same place.—Compare Baal-meon, Beon, Beth-baal-meon in the article on BAAL-MEON.

The description given in the Bible account indicates a place on the plateau region toward the NE corner of the Dead Sea. While the identification is only tentative, a suggested location is that of Khirbet el-Quweiqiyeh, about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) E of the Dead Sea, near the probable location of Mount Nebo.

BAN

This word is used in certain modern translations (JB, NW) to translate the Hebrew hheʹrem, also rendered in the New World Translation as “thing devoted to destruction.” The Hebrew word refers to that which is irrevocably and irredeemably devoted to God and thus separated out for sacred use, but is most frequently used with reference to things thus separated for complete destruction. It can apply to an individual person (Ex. 22:20; The Jerusalem Bible here reading: “Anyone who sacrifices to other gods shall come under the ban [be devoted to destruction, NW]”; Lev. 27:29); or apply to his possessions (Ezra 10:8); to an animal, field, or any article so devoted to sacred use (Lev. 27:21, 28), or to an entire city and all things therein.—Deut. 13:15-17; Josh. 6:17.

Sacred bans figured in certain prophecies. (Mic. 4:13; Zech. 14:11) For a complete discussion of the subject, see DEVOTE.

BANGLE

See ANKLET.

BANI

(Baʹni) [build].

1. A Levite in the line of Merari, and ancestor of the Ethan whom David appointed to temple service.—1 Chron. 6:46.

2. One of David’s mighty men, a Gadite.—2 Sam. 23:36.

3. A descendant of Judah through Perez whose descendants lived in Jerusalem after the captivity. (1 Chron. 9:3, 4) It is possible that this family head was the same as Nos. 4 and 5 or as 4 and 6 below.

4. A family head whose descendants, over six hundred in number, returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:1, 10) He is called Binnui at Nehemiah 7:15.—See No. 3 above.

5. A family head six of whose descendants dismissed their foreign wives and sons in Ezra’s time. Not the same as No. 6 below.—Ezra 10:29, 44; see No. 3 above.

6. A family head in Israel who apparently had twelve descendants who dismissed their foreign wives and sons in Ezra’s day. Not the same as No. 5 above.—Ezra 10:34, 44; see No. 3 above.

7. A Levite whose son Rehum helped repair Jerusalem’s wall in 455 B.C.E. Compare Nos. 8-10, 12 below.—Neh.3:17.

8. A Levite who assisted Ezra with reading and explaining the Law to the people.—Neh. 8:7; 9:4, 5; see No. 7 above.

9. The second-listed of two Levites named Bani who were on the platform when public confession of Israel’s sins was made in 455 B.C.E.—Neh. 9:4.

10. A Levite whose descendant, if not himself, attested by seal to Nehemiah’s “trustworthy arrangement.”—Neh. 9:38; 10:13.

11. One of the “heads of the people” whose descendant, if not himself, also attested to the “trustworthy arrangement.”—Neh. 9:38; 10:14.

12. A Levite descendant of Asaph whose son Uzzi was overseer of the Levites in Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah.—Neh. 11:22; see No. 7 above.

BANK, BANKER

In Jesus’ parables of the talents and the mines he referred to bankers and to a bank as giving interest on money deposited with them. (Matt. 25:27; Luke 19:23) Much like the English word “bank” (which derives from the Italian word [banca] for bench or counter), the Greek word translated bank (traʹpe·za) literally meant a table (Matt. 15:27), or, when associated with financial operations, as with the money changers, it referred to a counter for money.—Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15.

Jesus’ reference to “bankers” (Gr., tra·pe·ziʹtes [singular]) as accepting deposits and paying interest indicates a larger operation than that generally performed by the money brokers (Gr., ker·ma·ti·stesʹ [singular] from ker·ma·tiʹzo, to make small change) or money changers (kol·ly·bi·stesʹ [singular] from kolʹly·bos, a small coin or rate of exchange) whose main operations were to exchange local money for foreign money and provide coins of lesser value in exchange for ones of greater value, receiving a certain fee for each such service. (See MONEY CHANGER.) Some of these men may also have done banking, accepting deposits and making loans, while in other cases these financial transactions were handled by men of wealth, such as merchants and owners of large estates.

Evidence of such banking activity goes back apparently to the time of Abraham, for the ancient Sumerians of the Plains of Shinar are said to have carried on “a surprisingly complex system of lending, borrowing, holding money on deposit, and providing letters of credit . . . ” (The Encyclopedia Americana 1956 ed., Vol. 3, p. 152) In Babylon, as later in Greece, the banking activities centered around the religious temples whose sacrosanct position in the minds of the people provided security against assault by thieves. The temple of Shamash, the sun-god, at Sippar has been called “the oldest financial establishment in the world.” (Nebuchadnezzar, G. R. Tabouis, p. 317) Funds were loaned for commercial enterprises, mortgages on property, or in cases of financial emergency. Transactions were put in written form on clay tablets in the presence of witnesses, acknowledged as valid by the mark or seal of the parties, and protected against falsification by the placing of a duplicate text within a clay envelope, which was not to be broken unless some dispute required it. Private groups also acted as bankers, and the Egibi family of Babylon was very prominent in the banking business during King Nebuchadnezzar’s time (in the latter half of the seventh and the early part of the sixth century B.C.E.), hundreds of commercial documents bearing their name being issued in the form of clay tablets, unearthed in recent times by archaeologists. The bankers of Babylon received interest ranging from 12 to 20 percent on loans. Houses, lands, furniture, even wives and children were pledged as security.

In Greece, by the fourth century B.C.E., the temples, private groups and firms were engaged in financial activities similar to those of banks of modern times, including the arrangement of credit transactions between cities, investment of funds and exchange of foreign currency. In ancient Troy depositors of money for the public service of the State evidently received as much as 10 percent interest on their deposits. Similar banking activity was carried on throughout the Roman Empire.

Inasmuch as the economy of the nation of Israel was fundamentally agricultural, the need for such financial enterprises was considerably less than in such commercial centers as Babylon, Tyre and Sidon. While the taking of interest on loans made to their fellow Israelites is condemned at Deuteronomy 23:19, this appears to have been primarily in cases of borrowing done by needy and impoverished persons. (Compare Exodus 22:25; Leviticus 25:35-37; 2 Kings 4:1-7.) Interest was specifically allowable on loans to non-Israelites. (Deut. 23:20) Valuables were often left in the care of some trusted persons for safekeeping (Ex. 22:7), while others resorted to burying them in the ground, as did the sluggish slave of Jesus’ parable. (Matt. 25:25; compare Matthew 13:44.) Evidence of this practice is seen in the large quantities of valuables and coins unearthed by both archaeologists and farmers in Bible lands.

Following the exile in Babylon (607-537 B.C.E.) there is some evidence in the form of papyrus documents that Jewish bankers and brokers were active in Egypt. Certain ones of the Israelites who returned from Babylon to the land of Judah were condemned for applying harsh banking practices toward their needy brothers, exacting security in the form of their homes, lands and vineyards, and even their children, and charging an interest rate of 12 percent annually (one hundredth part per month). Those debtors who defaulted due to insolvency thus suffered the loss of their properties. (Neh. 5:1-11) Such improper action, however, did not place a blanket condemnation on the receiving of interest, as evidenced by Jesus’ later expression of implied approval of the use of capital to obtain increased funds.—See INTEREST.

BAPTISM

[Gr., baʹpti·sma, the process of immersion, including submersion and emergence; from baʹpto, to dip].

In the Bible, “to immerse” is the same as “to baptize.” In illustration of this, The Holy Bible, An Improved Edition, published in 1913, renders Romans 6:3, 4 as follows: “Or, are you ignorant, that all we who were baptized (immersed) into Christ