lying signs and portents and with every unrighteous deception.” This, too, illustrates the point that pa·rou·siʹa means more than a momentary coming or arrival, for the effecting of all these works, signs, portents and this deception clearly requires a period of time of some length.

PRESENTS

See GIFTS, PRESENTS.

PRESIDING OFFICER

See SYNAGOGUE.

PRESS

Since the harvest of olives came after that of grapes, the same presses were often used for extracting both grape juice and olive oil, although there was also a pillar type of press used for olives.

Common presses usually consisted of two shallow sinklike cavities cut out of natural limestone, the one on a higher level connected by a small channel to the lower one. (Num. 18:27, 30; 2 Ki. 6:27) The grapes or olives were trodden or crushed in the upper basin (gath, Neh. 13:15), allowing the juices to flow by gravity into the lower vat (yeʹqev, Judg. 7:25; Prov. 3:10; Joel 2:24; Hag. 2:16). In Joel 3:13 both terms occur: “Come, descend, for the wine press [gath] has become full. The press vats [y^eqa·vimʹ, plural of yeʹqev] actually overflow.” Apparently the term yeʹqev was also used in reference to single-basin presses, in which both the treading of the grapes and the collecting of the juice took place. (Job 24:11; Isa. 5:2; 16:10; Jer. 48:33) The bottoms of these presses were more on an incline than the conventional two-basin type, to allow for the collecting of the juice at the lower end. If the press was long and narrow, like a trough, it was called pu·rahʹ. (Isa. 63:3; Hag. 2:16) The Christian Greek Scriptures also speak of the winepress (le·nosʹ, Matt. 21:33), as well as the “vat for the wine press” (hy·po·leʹni·on, Mark 12:1).

One such winepress was found, the upper basin of which measured eight feet (2.4 meters) square and fifteen inches (38 centimeters) deep. The smaller vat, some two feet (.6 meter) lower in elevation, into which the juice ran, was four feet (1.2 meters) square and three feet (.9 meter) deep. Such a winepress served Gideon as a place in which to thresh his wheat.—Judg. 6:11.

Crushing the fruit in these presses was usually done by bare feet or by heavy stones. From two to seven or more treaders worked as a team in the press. It was therefore noteworthy that Isaiah said the great Treader Jehovah will tread the wine trough alone. (Isa. 63:3) Above the heads of the treaders was a crossbeam from which ropes extended for the men to hold on to for support. The splashing of the “blood of grapes” stained the upper garments of the treaders. (Gen. 49:11; Isa. 63:2) Although it meant plenty of hard work, the crushing season was usually a time of rejoicing; joyful shouting and singing helped to keep rhythm in the treading. (Judg. 9:27; Jer. 25:30; 48:33) The expression “upon the Gittith” (rendered “wine presses” in the Septuagint and the Vulgate) appearing in the superscription of three Psalms (8, 81, 84) may indicate that they were vintage songs.

FIGURATIVE USE

There are a number of Scriptural instances where the winepress is referred to in a figurative sense. (Isa. 63:2, 3; Lam. 1:15) In the day of Jehovah when crowds are assembled in the low plain of decision, the command goes forth: “Thrust in a sickle, for harvest has grown ripe. Come, descend, for the wine press has become full. The press vats actually overflow; for their badness has become abundant.” (Joel 3:13, 14) Similarly, John saw in vision “the vine of the earth” hurled “into the great wine press of the anger of God,” there trodden until the “blood came out of the wine press as high up as the bridles of the horses.” The one called “Faithful and True,” “The Word of God,” is the one who treads this winepress of the “anger of the wrath of God the Almighty.”—Rev. 14:19, 20; 19:11-16.

PRESUMPTUOUSNESS

The taking upon oneself of more than right or propriety warrants, or without authority; impertinent boldness in conduct or thought; the taking of undue liberties; the undertaking of something in rash defiance. The word is related to haughtiness, arrogance, pride and forwardness. Its antonyms are meekness and modesty.

PRIDE, ANGER BRING PRESUMPTUOUSNESS

The Hebrew word za·dhohnʹ is derived from the verb zidh or zudh, “to boil up, seethe,” hence, “to boil up with pride, to act proudly toward.” The heat of anger or pride can cause one to act rashly, to become unwarrantedly bold and to overstep his rights. The proverb says: “Presumptuous, self-assuming braggart is the name of the one who is acting in a fury of presumptuousness.” (Prov. 21:24) At Deuteronomy 1:43 the verb form is used in describing the action of the people of Israel in disobeying God’s command and running ahead without authorization. Moses said to them: “So I spoke to you, and you did not listen but began to behave rebelliously against Jehovah’s order and to get all heated up, and you tried to go up into the mountain.” Another Hebrew word, ʽa·phalʹ, means “to swell or become tumid.” This word is employed in the account of the same incident at Numbers 14:40-44: “Moses said: ‘. . . Do not go up, because Jehovah is not in your midst’ . . . However, they presumed to go up to the top of the mountain,” where they met defeat at the hands of the inhabitants. They were ‘puffed up’ with false confidence.

The fact that anger can bring destructive presumptuousness and gross violation of God’s law is also shown in God’s command to Israel: “In case a man becomes heated [form of zidh] against his fellow to the point of killing him with craftiness, you are to take him even from being at my altar to die.”—Ex. 21:14.

TO BE CAREFULLY GUARDED AGAINST

King David, who was granted many favors and great authority by God, realized that, nonetheless, he could be guilty of presumptuousness. He prayed: “Mistakes—who can discern? From concealed sins pronounce me innocent. Also from presumptuous acts hold your servant back; do not let them dominate me. In that case I shall be complete, and I shall have remained innocent from much transgression.” (Ps. 19:12, 13) The danger is great, therefore, and something to be closely guarded against. A presumptuous act is a much more serious sin than a mistake. Whether one is in a high position or low, the taking of liberties is a detestable thing in God’s sight. Uzziah, though a mighty king who had experienced God’s blessings, was struck with leprosy for presumptuously taking priestly duties into his own hands. (2 Chron. 26:16-21) Presumptuousness prompted King Saul into rebellion against Jehovah. Not willing to wait for Samuel’s arrival, Saul took it upon himself to offer sacrifice. (1 Sam. 13:8-14) He also used his own judgment in sparing Amalekite King Agag and the best of the spoil, when Jehovah’s command had been to devote the Amalekites to destruction. For his presumptuous course Saul was rejected as king.—1 Sam. 15:8, 9, 11, 18, 19.

A notable example of presumption on the part of a non-royal Israelite is that of Uzzah. The ark of the covenant was being transported to Jerusalem in a cattle-drawn cart. When the cattle nearly caused an upset, Uzzah, who was not a Kohathite Levite and hence had no right to touch the Ark (Num. 4:15), reached out and grabbed hold of it to steady it. For this faithless presumption Jehovah struck him and he died.—2 Sam. 6:6, 7.

One not sure of what action to take on a matter, or not certain whether it is within his authority to do so, should by all means first consult others who have knowledge and discernment. The Scriptures