talks in which no theme is emphasized, it may be that you are not actually building your talk around any central idea. You may be including in the talk too many points that really do not contribute to the theme.

7, 8. Show ways that one can highlight the theme.

⁷ Theme words or idea repeated. One way that all parts of a talk can be made to highlight the theme is to repeat key words stated in the theme or to repeat the central idea of the theme. In music, a theme is a melody repeated often enough to characterize the entire composition. In fact, generally just a few measures are enough to make the number recognizable. The melody does not always reappear in the same form. Sometimes only a phrase or two of the melody occurs, occasionally a variation on the theme is used, but, in one way or another, the composer skillfully weaves his melody in and out of the composition until it permeates the whole and characterizes it.

⁸ So it should be with the theme of a talk. The key words or theme idea repeated is like the recurring melody of a composition. Synonyms of these words or the central theme idea rephrased serves as a variation on the theme. Such means employed discreetly enough not to become monotonous will cause the subject theme to become the characteristic expression of the entire talk and it will be the main thought your audience will carry away.

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9-13. Explain what the main points in a talk are. Illustrate.

⁹ After determining the theme of your talk, the next step in preparation is to select the main points that you plan to use in developing it. On your Speech Counsel slip this is listed as “Main points made to stand out.”

¹⁰ What are the main points in a talk? They are not simply interesting ideas or points that are briefly stated in passing. They are the main sections of the talk, the ideas that are developed at some length. They are like shelf labels or signs in grocery stores that help one to identify what a section of shelves contains, and they govern what may be included in that section and what ought to be left out. Under the label CEREALS, jams and jellies would be out of place and only confuse persons. Under the sign COFFEE AND TEA, rice would not belong. If the shelf labels are hidden because of overcrowding or overloading, then it is difficult to find anything. But if the signs remain clearly visible, a person can quickly recognize what is before him. So it is with the main points of your talk. As long as they can be perceived and kept in mind, your audience will need very few notes to follow you to your conclusion.

¹¹ Another factor. The selection and use of main points will vary according to the audience and purpose of the talk. For this reason, the school overseer should evaluate the student’s choice of main points on the basis of the student’s use of them, not on an arbitrary selection of points the counselor may have made in advance.

¹² In making your selection choose only the essentials. So, ask, what makes a point essential? It is essential if you cannot accomplish the purpose of your talk without it. For example, in a discussion of the ransom with a person unacquainted with the doctrine, it is vital to establish Jesus’ humanity on earth, otherwise it would be impossible to demonstrate the corresponding quality of his sacrifice. Therefore you would consider this to be one of the main points of the discussion. But if you had already proved to this person that the Trinity was a false concept, then your discussion of the position that Jesus occupied as a human might be only secondary because of its already being accepted. And because of this it would then be comparatively simple to establish the corresponding value of Jesus’ ransom. In that case the consideration of Jesus’ humanity would not be an essential.

¹³ So ask yourself, What does my audience already know? What must I establish to accomplish my purpose? If you know the answer to the first question, you can answer the second by gathering your material, temporarily setting aside all matters that are known and sorting out all the remaining points into the fewest possible groups. These groups become your identifying signs as to what spiritual food you are presenting to the audience. These labels or main points must never become covered up or hidden. They are your main points, which must stand out.

14-17. Give reasons why we should not have too many main points.

¹⁴ Not too many main points. There are only a few essentials on any subject. In the majority of cases they can be numbered on one hand. This is true regardless of the time you have in which to present them. Do not fall into the common snare of trying to make too many points stand out. When a grocery store gets too big and there are too many categories, one may have to ask for directions. Your audience can reasonably grasp only so many different ideas at one sitting. And the longer your talk, the simpler it must be made and the stronger and more sharply defined your key points must be. So do not try to make your audience remember many things. Select those points that you feel they absolutely must carry away and then spend all your time talking about these.

¹⁵ What determines whether there are too many points or not? Simply stated, if any idea could be left out and the purpose of the talk still be accomplished, that point is not a key point. To round out the talk you may decide to include the point as a connective or a reminder, but it should not stand out as prominently as those that could not possibly be omitted.

¹⁶ Another thing, you must have sufficient time to develop each point successfully, conclusively. If much must be said in a short time, hold the matters known to the audience down to a minimum. Strip away all but the unfamiliar factors and make them so clear that it will be difficult for the audience to forget them.

¹⁷ Lastly, your talk must give an impression of simplicity. This does not always depend on the amount of material presented. It may be just the way your points are grouped together. For example, if you were to walk into a store where everything was piled together in the middle of the floor, it would look crowded and most confusing. You would have difficulty finding anything. But, when everything is properly arranged and all related items are grouped together and identified by a section sign, the effect is quite pleasing and any one item can be easily located. Make your talk simple by grouping your thoughts under just a few main ideas.

18. How should main points be developed?

¹⁸ Main ideas developed separately. Each main thought must stand on its own. Each must be developed separately. This does not prevent a brief outline or summary of the main headings in the introduction or conclusion of your talk. But in the body of the talk you should talk about only one main idea at a time, allowing only such overlapping or regressions as may be needed for connections or emphasis. Learning to make a topical outline will greatly aid in determining whether main points are developed separately.

19-21. How should sub-points be employed?

¹⁹ Sub-points focus on main ideas. Points of proof, scriptures, or other material presented should focus attention on the main idea and amplify it.

²⁰ In preparation, analyze all secondary points and keep only what directly contributes to that main point, either to clarify, prove or amplify the point. Anything irrelevant should be eliminated. It will only confuse the issue.

²¹ Any point related to a main idea should be directly connected to that thought by what you say. Do not leave it to the audience to apply. Make the connection clear. Say what the connection is. What is not spoken will generally not be understood. This can be accomplished by repeating key words that express the main thought or by repeating the idea of the main point from time to time. When you master the art of focusing all your sub-points on the main points of the talk, and tying in each main point with the theme, your talks will take on a delightful simplicity that will make them easy to give and hard to forget.

Study 28

Audience Contact and Use of Notes

1. Explain the importance of audience contact and the part use of notes plays in this.

¹ Having good contact with your audience is a great aid in teaching. It wins their respect and enables you to teach more effectively. Your contact with them should bring you into such close touch that their every reaction is immediately felt by you as speaker. Your use of notes plays an important part in determining whether you have such audience contact or not. Extensive notes can be a hindrance; but skilled use of notes is not disturbing, even if the circumstances require that they be somewhat longer than usual. That is because a speaker who is skilled does not lose his contact with the audience by looking at the notes either too much or at the wrong time. On your Speech Counsel slip this is given attention, and it is listed as “Audience contact, use of notes.”

2-5. What makes for effective visual contact with the audience?

² Visual contact with the audience. Visual contact means to see your audience. It means not just looking at the audience but looking at the individuals in the audience. It means seeing the expressions on their faces and reacting accordingly.

³ Looking at your audience does not mean simply a rhythmic movement from one side to the other so that no one is missed. Look at someone in the audience and say a sentence or two to that individual. Then look at another and say a few more sentences to that person. Do not stare at anyone so long that he is embarrassed and do not concentrate on only a few persons in the entire audience. Continue to move throughout the audience in this way, but, as you speak to a person, really talk to that one and notice his reaction before you pass on to another. Your notes should be placed on the speakers’ stand or in your hand or Bible so that you can look at them quickly, with only an eye movement. If it is necessary to move your entire head to see your notes, audience contact will suffer.

⁴ Your counselor will observe not only how often you use your notes but when you look at them. If you are looking at your notes while you are reaching a climax, you will not see your audience’s reaction. If you are constantly consulting your notes, you will also lose contact. This generally indicates either a nervous habit or insufficient preparation for delivery.

⁵ There are times at which experienced speakers are called on to give an entire talk from a manuscript, and, of course, this somewhat limits their visual contact with the audience. But if they are well acquainted with the material as a result of good preparation, they are able to look at their audience from time to time without losing their place, and this is a stimulus to expressive reading on their part.

6-9. Point out another means of gaining audience contact, and the pitfalls that must be guarded against.

⁶ Audience contact by direct address. This is just as essential as visual contact. It involves the words you use in addressing your audience.

⁷ When you talk to one person privately you address him directly by saying “you,” “your” or “we,” “our.” Where it is appropriate, you can speak in the same way to a larger audience. Try to view your talk as a conversation with one or two persons at a time. Watch them closely enough so that you can respond to them as though they had actually spoken to you. This will personalize your delivery.

⁸ A word of caution though. Avoid the danger of becoming too familiar with your audience. You need not become intimate any more than you would in dignified conversation with one or two persons at a door in the field ministry, but you can and should be just as direct.

⁹ Another danger. You must be judicious in your use of personal pronouns and not cast your audience in an undesirable light. For instance, in a talk on delinquency, you would not use a form of address that would infer your audience were the delinquents. Or, if you were discussing low hours in the service meeting, you might include yourself in the talk, using the pronoun, “we” instead of always saying “you.” Thoughtfulness and consideration should easily overcome any danger of this sort.

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10, 11. What should encourage us to learn to use an outline?

¹⁰ Use of outline. Few beginning speakers start out by speaking from an outline. Usually they will write the talk out in advance and then either read it or deliver it from memory. Your counselor will overlook this at the beginning, but when you come to “Use of outline” on your Speech Counsel slip he is going to encourage you to speak from notes. When you master it, you will find that you have taken a great stride forward as a public speaker.

¹¹ Children and adults who cannot even read give talks, using illustrations to suggest ideas. You can prepare your talk with a simple outline too, the same as the Scripture presentations that are outlined in Kingdom Ministry. You speak regularly without a manuscript in the field ministry. You can do it just as easily in the school, once you make up your mind to it.

12, 13. Give suggestions on how to make an outline.

¹² Since working on this quality is to help you to get away from a manuscript, both in preparation and in delivery, do not memorize your talk. It will defeat the purpose of this Study.

¹³ If you are using scriptures, you can ask yourself the adverbial questions, How? Who? When? Where? and so forth. Then, as they fit your material, use these questions as part of your notes. In giving the talk simply read a scripture, ask yourself or your householder these questions, as appropriate, and answer them. It can be as simple as that.

14, 15. What factors should not discourage us?

¹⁴ Beginners often are concerned that they will forget something. However, if you have developed your talk logically, no one will even miss a thought if you do overlook it. Coverage of material is not the main consideration at this stage anyway. It is more important for you now to learn to talk from an outline.

¹⁵ It is possible that in giving this talk you will feel you have lost many of the qualities already learned. Do not be alarmed. They will return and you will find yourself more proficient at them once you can learn to speak without a manuscript.

16, 17. In making notes, what should we remember?

¹⁶ Just a word about notes used for talks in the ministry school. They should be used to recall ideas, not to recite them. Notes should be brief. They should also be neat, orderly and legible. If your setting is a return visit, your notes should be inconspicuous, perhaps inside your Bible. If it is a platform talk and you know you are going to be using a speakers’ stand, then notes should be no problem. But if you are not sure, prepare accordingly.

¹⁷ Another aid is to write the theme at the top of your notes. Main points should also stand out clearly to the eye. Try writing them in all capital letters or underlining them.

18, 19. How can we practice using an outline?

¹⁸ Your use of only a few notes in delivering your talk does not mean you can skimp on preparation. Prepare the talk in detail first, making as complete an outline as you wish. Then, prepare a second, much briefer, outline. This is the outline that you will actually use to deliver the talk.

¹⁹ Now put both outlines in front of you and, looking only at the abbreviated outline, say just as much as you can on the first main point. Next, glance at the more detailed outline and see what you have overlooked. Go on to the second main point in your abbreviated outline and do the same. In time, the shorter outline will become so familiar to you that you can recall everything in the more detailed outline just by looking at your few brief notes. With practice and experience you will begin to appreciate the advantages of extemporaneous speaking and will use a manuscript only when absolutely required. You will feel more relaxed when you speak and your audience will listen with greater respect.

Study 29

Fluent, Conversational Delivery with Proper Pronunciation

1-4. List the causes and symptoms of lack of fluency.

¹ When you get up in front of an audience to give a talk, do you find that you are often groping for the right words? Or, when reading aloud, do you stumble over certain expressions? If so, you have a problem with fluency. A fluent person is one who is ready in the use of words. It does not mean a “glib” person, that is, one who is thoughtlessly or insincerely free with words. It is smooth or pleasingly graceful speech, flowing with ease or freedom. Fluency is listed on the Speech Counsel slip for special attention.

² In speaking, the more common causes for lack of fluency are lack of clear thinking and preparation of the material. It can also result from a weak vocabulary or a poor choice of words. In reading, the lack of fluency is usually because of a lack of practice in reading aloud, although here too a lack of knowledge of words will cause stumbling or hesitancy. In the field ministry, a lack of fluency can be a combination of these factors coupled with timidity or uncertainty. There the problem is particularly serious because in some instances your audience will literally walk out on you. In the Kingdom Hall your audience will not literally walk out but their minds will wander and much of what you say will be lost. So it is a serious matter; fluency is certainly a quality to acquire.

³ Many speakers have the disconcerting mannerism of inserting such expressions as “and-uh” or similar “word whiskers.” If you are unaware of the frequency with which you add such expressions to your speech, you might try a practice session in which you have someone listen and repeat these expressions after you each time you say them. You might be surprised.

⁴ Other persons always speak with regressions, that is, beginning a sentence, then interrupting themselves and starting all over again. If you are afflicted with this bad habit, try overcoming it in your daily conversation. Make a conscious effort to think first and get the thought clearly in mind. Then say the complete thought without stopping or changing ideas in “midstream.”

5-10. What suggestions are given to improve a speaker’s fluency?

⁵ Another thing. We are accustomed to using words as we express ourselves. So words should come naturally if we know exactly what we want to say. You need not think of the words. In fact, it is better for the sake of practice just to make certain that the idea is clear in your mind and think of the words as you go. If you do, and if you keep your mind on the idea rather than on the words that you are speaking, the words should come automatically and your thoughts should be expressed as you really feel them. But as soon as you begin to think of words rather than ideas your speech will become halting.

⁶ If your problem in fluency is a matter of word choice, then some regular study in building a vocabulary is called for. In The Watchtower and other publications of the Society take special note of words that are unfamiliar to you and add some of them to your daily vocabulary.

⁷ Since lack of fluency in reading is generally due to an unfamiliarity with words, you would do well to practice reading aloud regularly and systematically if this is your problem.

⁸ One way this can be done is to select a paragraph or two of material and silently read it over carefully until you are familiar with the entire thought of the portion. Isolate thought groups, marking them if necessary. Then begin to practice reading this portion aloud. In practice, read it over repeatedly until you can read entire thought groups without one hesitation or halting in wrong places.

⁹ Unfamiliar or difficult words should be pronounced over and over until they are easy for you to say. After you can say the word alone, then read the entire sentence with that word in it until you can add it to the sentence just as freely as you can the more familiar words.

¹⁰ Also, practice sight-reading regularly. For example, always read the daily text and comments aloud the first time you see them. Become accustomed to allowing your eye to take in words as groups, expressing complete thoughts, rather than seeing just one word at a time. If you practice, you can conquer this vital quality of effective speaking and reading.

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11-15. How does conversational quality depend on the expressions used?

¹¹ Another desirable speech characteristic noted on the counsel slip is “Conversational quality.” It is something that you have in everyday life, but do you have it when you get up to give a talk? Somehow, persons who easily converse even with a large group often become very formal and somewhat “preachy” when called on to prepare in advance to “give a talk.” Yet the most effective manner of public speaking is the conversational style.

¹² Conversational expressions used. Much of the effectiveness of conversational speaking depends upon the expressions that are used. In preparing an extemporaneous talk, it is generally not good to repeat expressions exactly as they appear in print. A written style is different from the spoken word. So shape these ideas according to your own individual expression. Avoid the use of involved sentence structure.

¹³ Your speech on the platform should reflect your daily expression. You should not try to “put on airs.” Still, your prepared talk will naturally be an improvement over everyday speech, since your ideas are more carefully thought out in advance and will come with greater fluency. Consequently, your expressions themselves should be better phrased.

¹⁴ This stresses the importance of daily practice. In speaking, be yourself. Avoid slang. Avoid constant repetition of the same expressions and phrases to convey every different thought that you might have. Learn to speak with meaning. Take pride in your daily conversation and, when you are on the platform, words will come much more readily and you will be able to speak with a conversational quality that will be colorful, easy and acceptable to any audience.

¹⁵ This is particularly true in the field ministry. And in your student talks, if you are talking to a householder, try to talk as though you were in the field service, using expressions that you would use there in a natural and easy way. This will make an informal and realistic talk and, more important, will train you for more effective presentations in the field ministry.

16-19. Point out how delivery can affect conversational quality.

¹⁶ Conversational style of delivery. Conversational quality does not depend alone upon the expressions that are used. Your manner or style of delivery is also important. This involves the tone of voice, voice inflection and naturalness of expression. It is as spontaneous as everyday speaking, though amplified to the audience.

¹⁷ Conversational delivery is just the opposite of oratory. It lacks all the elements of the “preachy” delivery and is free from all affectation.

¹⁸ One way in which conversational quality is often lost by beginning speakers is through too thorough advance preparation of the wording of the material. In preparation for delivery, do not think that you should go over the talk word for word until you know it practically by heart in order to be properly prepared. In extemporaneous speaking, preparation for delivery should put the emphasis on a careful review of the ideas to be expressed. These should be reviewed as thoughts or ideas until one easily follows the other in your mind. If they have been logically developed and well planned this should not be difficult, and in delivery of the talk the ideas should come freely and easily. That being so, and if they are expressed with the desire to communicate, the conversational quality will be a part of the delivery.

¹⁹ One way that you can assure yourself of this is to make an effort to talk to different individuals in the audience. Speak directly to one at a time. Think of that person as having asked a question, and then answer it. Picture yourself in a private conversation with that person in developing that particular thought. Then pass on to another in the audience and repeat the same process.

20-23. How can one make his reading sound natural?

²⁰ Maintaining a conversational style of delivery in reading is one of the most difficult qualities of speech to master, yet one of the most vital. Most of our public reading, of course, is from the Bible, in reading texts in connection with an extemporaneous talk. The Bible should be read with feeling and a keen awareness of the meaning. It should be alive. On the other hand, God’s true ministers will never affect the sanctimonious tonal inflection of the religious clergy. Jehovah’s servants will read His Word with the natural emphasis and unpretentious reality that the living language of this Book deserves.

²¹ Much the same is true in reading The Watchtower or the paragraphs at a book study. Here again, the expressions and sentence structure are not designedly conversational, so your reading cannot always sound like conversation. But, if you get the sense of what you are reading and read it as naturally and meaningfully as you can, you can often make it sound as though it were extemporaneous speech, though perhaps a little more formal than you would normally use. It should be your practice, therefore, to write in whatever marks will help you, if you can prepare in advance, and do your utmost to present the material in a realistic and natural style.

²² In conversational reading or speaking, sincerity and naturalness are the keynotes. Let your heart overflow and speak with appeal to your hearers.

²³ Good speech cannot be put on for an occasion any more than can good manners. But if you employ good speech every day it will show on the platform the same as your good manners applied at home always show when you are in public.

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24, 25. Why is poor pronunciation undesirable?

²⁴ Pronunciation. Proper pronunciation is also important, and it is listed separately on the Speech Counsel slip. While not all Christians have had a great deal of worldly education, even as Peter and John were observed as being unlettered and ordinary men, still it is important to avoid detracting from our presentation of the message due to poor pronunciation. It is something that can be readily corrected if we give adequate attention to it.

²⁵ If a person’s pronunciation is very bad, it may even be that he will convey wrong ideas to the minds of his audience, which would be definitely undesirable. When you hear someone mispronounce a word in his talk, the general effect is that it flashes before your mind as a stoplight would. You may even cease following his line of argument and begin to think about the word that he mispronounced. It can cause you to switch your attention from what is said to how it is being said.

26, 27. What problems are listed in connection with pronunciation?

²⁶ It might be said that there are three general types of problems in connection with pronunciation. One is definitely erroneous pronunciation, where the accent is misplaced or the letters are given the wrong sound. Most modern languages have a regular pattern of accentuation, but in the English language the pattern is not uniform, which makes the problem a more difficult one. Then, too, there is pronunciation that is correct but exaggerated, overly precise, giving an impression of affectation, even snobbishness, and this is not desirable. The third problem is slovenly speech, characterized by constant slurring of words, telescoping or skipping syllables and other such practices. They are to be avoided.

²⁷ Usually in our everyday speech we employ words with which we are well acquainted; so pronunciation is not a great problem in this connection. The greatest problem arises in reading. But Jehovah’s witnesses do a great deal of reading in public as well as in private. We read the Bible to people when we go from house to house. Sometimes we are called on to read the paragraphs in the Watchtower study, at a home Bible study or a congregation book study. It is important that the reading be accurate, that the pronunciation be proper. If it is not, it gives the impression that we do not know what we are talking about. It also draws attention away from the message.

28-34. How can one be helped to improve his pronunciation?

²⁸ Counsel on wrong pronunciation should not be overdone. If there is some question concerning a word or two, private counsel may be sufficient. But even if only a few words are mispronounced in the course of a talk, if these are words that we regularly use in our ministry or in our daily speech, it would be helpful to the student for the school overseer to draw attention to them so that he learns how to pronounce them properly.

²⁹ On the other hand, if in reading from the Bible the student happened to mispronounce one or two Hebrew names, this would not be considered an outstanding weakness. However, if he mispronounced many names, this would give evidence of lack of preparation, and counsel should be given. The student should be helped to learn how to ascertain the proper pronunciation and then practice it.

³⁰ So too with exaggerated pronunciation. If it really detracts from the talk because it is a constant practice, help should be given to the student. It should also be noted that, when speaking rapidly, most persons are inclined to slur a few words. No counsel needs to be given on this, but if it is a regular practice, if a student constantly slurs his words and it becomes difficult to understand his speech or detracts from the message, then it would be advisable to give him some assistance on articulation.

³¹ Of course, your counselor will keep in mind that acceptable pronunciation may vary in different localities. Even dictionaries often list more than one acceptable pronunciation. So he will exercise care in counseling on pronunciation. He will not make it a matter of personal preference.

³² If you have a problem with pronunciation, you will not find it difficult to correct when you set your mind to it. Even experienced speakers when given an assignment of reading get out the dictionary and look up words with which they are not well acquainted. They do not simply make a stab at them. So use the dictionary.

³³ Another way that pronunciation can be improved is by reading to someone else, someone who does pronounce words well, and ask him to stop you and correct you every time you make a mistake.

³⁴ A third method is by listening carefully to good speakers. Think as you listen; take note of the words that they pronounce differently than you do. Write them down; check them in the dictionary and practice them. Soon you too will have correct pronunciation. Fluent, conversational delivery, along with proper pronunciation, will greatly enhance your speaking.

Study 30

Coherent Development of a Talk

1-3. What role does coherence have in a talk, and how can it be attained?

¹ A coherent talk is one that is easy for the audience to follow. On the other hand, if coherence is lacking, their attention will soon be lost. Obviously, this is a matter that deserves serious attention when you prepare a talk; so “Coherence through connectives” is included on the Speech Counsel slip as deserving of your careful consideration.

² Coherence means a sticking together within, a uniting of parts held fast together making a logical whole. Sometimes this is accomplished in large measure simply by the logical order in which the parts are arranged. But in most talks there are parts that need to be connected beyond the simple arrangement of material. In such cases coherence requires a bridge from one point to another. Words or phrases are used to show the relation of the new ideas to what precedes them, thereby filling in gaps due to change in time or point of view. This is coherence through connectives.

³ For example, the introduction, the body and the conclusion of your talk are separate parts of the talk, distinct one from another, yet they must be tightly united by transitions. Additionally, main points need to be tied together in a talk, especially if they are not too directly related in thought content. Or sometimes it is just sentences or paragraphs that need connectives.

4-7. What is meant by the use of transitional expressions?

⁴ Use of transitional expressions. Frequently a bridge between ideas can be built simply by a proper use of connecting words or phrases. Some of these are: also, in addition, furthermore, moreover, likewise, similarly, hence, thus, for these reasons, therefore, in view of the foregoing, so, so then, thereafter, however, on the other hand, on the contrary, contrariwise, formerly, heretofore, and so forth. Such words effectively join sentences and paragraphs.

⁵ However, this quality of speech often calls for more than such simple connectives. When one word or phrase alone will not suffice, then a transition is called for that leads the audience completely over the gap to the other side. This might be a complete sentence or even the addition of a more fully expressed transitional thought.

⁶ One way such gaps can be bridged is to try to make the application of the preceding point a part of the introduction to what follows. Frequently this is done in our house-to-house presentations.

⁷ Furthermore, not only should consecutive points be tied together, but sometimes points more widely separated in the talk should be. For example, the conclusion of the talk should be tied in with the introduction. Perhaps an idea or illustration introduced in the beginning of the talk could be applied in such a way in the conclusion that it will motivate or further show the relation of the illustration or idea to the purpose of the talk. Reintroducing some aspect of the illustration or idea in this way serves as a connective and makes for coherence.

8. How does the audience affect the use of transitions for coherence?

⁸ Coherence adequate for your audience. How extensive connectives must be will be determined to some extent by your audience. Not that some audiences need no transitions. Rather, some audiences just need more, due to their lack of familiarity with the ideas to be related one to another. For instance, Jehovah’s witnesses will readily connect a scripture dealing with the end of the present wicked system of things to a text speaking of the Kingdom. But to someone who views the Kingdom as a state of mind or something in your heart, the association would not be so readily grasped and some transitional idea would have to be introduced to make the connection clear. Our door-to-door work continually calls for such adjustments.

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9-13. What is logical development, and what are the two basic ways to develop an argument?

⁹ A closely related aspect of speech is “Logical, coherent development,” and this, too, is included on the counsel form. It is a fundamental requirement of persuasive speech.

¹⁰ What is logic? For our purpose we might say that logic is the science of correct thinking or sound reasoning. It imparts understanding because it is the means by which a subject is explained in its connected parts. Logic shows why they act and belong together. The development is coherent if its reasoning follows a gradual growth in such a way that all parts are united in sequence. A logical development may be in order of importance, in chronological order or one going from problem to solution, to mention a few possibilities.

¹¹ In the development of argument there are two basic methods that can be followed. (1) Set the truth directly before the audience, producing facts to substantiate it. (2) Attack some erroneous position, which, being demolished, will leave the truth to assert itself. It only remains then to make proper application of the truths under discussion.

¹² No two speakers will reason exactly alike. A perfect example of different approaches to the same subject is in the writing of the four Gospels. Four disciples of Jesus wrote independent accounts of his ministry. Each is different, yet all wrote reasonable, logical presentations. Each developed the material to accomplish a particular purpose and each was successful.

¹³ In this connection the counselor must identify your purpose and endeavor to evaluate your sequence of thought on the basis of whether the purpose was accomplished or not. You can help him, and your audience, by making your purpose clear, particularly in the way you introduce your material and then apply it in the conclusion.

14, 15. Show why our having material in reasonable order is so important.

¹⁴ Material in reasonable order. First, in organizing your material or your outline, make certain that no statement or idea is brought in without some preliminary basis being laid for it. Keep asking yourself these questions: What is the most natural thing to say next? Having gone this far, what would be the most logical question that could be asked? Having identified this question, then simply answer it. Your audience should always be able to say: “From what you have already said I can see that this point is so.” If no foundation is laid, then the point would usually be considered as being out of logical sequence. Something is missing.

¹⁵ In arranging your material you should consider those parts that naturally depend upon each other. You should endeavor to see the relationship of such parts and then arrange them accordingly. It is somewhat like building a house. No builder would try to erect the walls without first laying the foundation. Nor would he lay all the pipe for the plumbing after he had plastered the walls. So it should be in the building of a talk. Each part should contribute its share in constructing a solid and compact whole, each in order, each adding to the part it follows and preparing the way for the ones to come. You should always have a reason for the order in which you present the facts in your talk.

16-20. How can one be certain that he has only relevant material in his talk?

¹⁶ Only relevant material used. Each point you use must be tied in tightly to the talk. If not, it will appear unrelated, it will not fit; it will be irrelevant material, that is, not bearing upon or connected with the matter in hand.

¹⁷ However, your counselor will not arbitrarily call something irrelevant that may outwardly appear unrelated if it is successfully tied in. It might be that you have chosen to use such a point for a particular purpose, and, if it fits the theme, is made a part of the talk, and is introduced in logical sequence, your counselor will accept it.

¹⁸ How can irrelevant material be quickly and easily identified in preparing your talk? Here is where a topical outline serves so effectively. It helps to classify your information. Try using cards or something similar, with all related material on each card. Now, rearrange these cards according to the natural sequence in which you think they would normally be presented. Not only will this help in determining what approach should be made to the subject, but also it will help to identify anything that is irrelevant to the theme. Those points that do not fit into sequence should be adjusted so that they do, if they are necessary to the argument. But, if they are not necessary, they should be eliminated as irrelevant to the theme.

¹⁹ From this it can quickly be seen that the theme of your talk, selected with audience and purpose in mind, controls in determining the relevancy of a point. In certain circumstances a point might be vital to accomplishing your purpose, depending upon the background of your audience, while, to a different audience or with a different theme, it might be unnecessary or totally irrelevant.

²⁰ In view of this, how complete should coverage of the material in your assignment be? Logical, coherent development should not be sacrificed just to cover every point that may be included in your assignment. It would be best, though, to select a setting that will allow you to include just as much of it as is practical, since the student talks are an instructive part of the school arrangement. However, those ideas essential to the development of your theme as key points cannot be omitted.

21. Why is it vital that no key ideas be omitted?

²¹ No key ideas omitted. How do you know whether an idea is a key idea or not? It is essential if you cannot accomplish the purpose of your talk without it. This is particularly true in logical, coherent development. For example, how could you manage if a contractor built you a two-story house and left out the staircase? Just so, a talk with certain essential points omitted could not possibly be logical and coherent in development. Something is lacking and some of the audience will be lost. But that does not happen when a talk is coherent and is logical in its development.

Study 31

Convince Your Audience, Reason with Them

1, 2. What is convincing argument?

¹ When you talk you expect your audience to listen, but that is not all. You would also like them to accept the arguments presented and act on them. This they will do if they are convinced of the truthfulness of what you say and if their hearts are right. To convince means to satisfy by proofs. But the proofs alone are not always sufficient. Argument in support of them is usually required. Therefore, to convince by argument involves three basic factors: first, the proofs themselves; second, the sequence or order in which the proofs are presented; third, the manner and methods used in presenting them. In this discussion, which corresponds to “Convincing argument” on the Speech Counsel form, we are going to consider what is said, what proof is given, rather than how you present it.

² Convincing argument depends upon sound basic reasons, and that is the way your counselor will be viewing it. Your proofs must be convincing even if one were to read them from cold print. If the convincing quality of your talk depends upon the manner in which it is presented and not upon the facts you have used to establish your point, then you will need to develop this quality further in order to make your argument really solid and factual.

3-6. Point out why a foundation must be laid.

³ Foundation laid. Before presenting your arguments, it is necessary to lay a proper foundation. You must make clear what the point of discussion is. And it is advantageous to establish a common ground by emphasizing relevant matters on which you agree.

⁴ In some instances terms must be clearly defined. All things that are irrelevant must be eliminated. Do not be hasty in laying your foundation. Make it firm, but do not make the foundation the entire building. If refuting an argument, analyze the various points used to support it to find the weak points and to help you determine your line of argument and how to get to the root of the matter.

⁵ In preparing your talk, you should try to anticipate how much your audience already knows about your subject. This will determine to a great extent how much of a foundation you will need to lay before you actually get into presenting your arguments.

⁶ Tact and Christian manners dictate a kind and considerate approach, though that is not the point we are working on here. Always draw to the full on your knowledge of Christian principles and open the hearts and minds of your audience.

7-13. Explain the meaning of “sound proof given.”

⁷ Sound proof given. A matter is not “proved” simply because you, as the speaker, believe it or state it. You must always remember that your audience is fully justified in asking, “Why is that true?” or, “Why do you say that is so?” As the speaker you always have the obligation of being able to answer the question “Why?”

⁸ The questions “How?” “Who?” “Where?” “When?” “What?” produce only facts and information in reply, but the question “Why?” produces reasons. It stands alone in this regard and demands more of you than just facts. It taxes your thinking ability. Because of this, in preparing your talk, ask yourself that same question repeatedly: “Why?” Then be certain that you can supply the answers.

⁹ As reasons for statements you make you can often quote someone who is accepted as an authority. That simply means that if he said it, it must be true because he is recognized as one who knows. That makes it reason enough for believing it. The supreme Authority in this field is, of course, Jehovah God. Therefore, quoting a text from the Bible in support is evidence enough to prove a point. This is called “testimonial” evidence because it consists of “testimony” from an acceptable witness.

¹⁰ In producing testimonial evidence you must be certain that your witness will be acceptable to your audience. If you use human authorities, be sure of their background and how they will be viewed. Many persons will accept the Bible as divine Authority, but some view it as man’s work and therefore not absolute in authority. In such cases you might have to resort to other evidences or perhaps establish the authenticity of the Bible first.

¹¹ A word of caution. All evidence must be used honestly. Do not take a quotation out of context. Make certain that what you say is exactly what the authority you are quoting had in mind to say. Be specific in your references. Be careful of statistics too. Improperly presented, these can boomerang with devastating results. Remember the man who could not swim and who drowned in a stream that averaged only three feet in depth. He forgot about the ten-foot hole in the middle.

¹² Circumstantial evidence is that other than human testimony or divine authority. It is evidence that is based on inferences from facts rather than quotations of witnesses. In order to establish your conclusions and make circumstantial evidence convincing, you must have a sufficient array of facts and arguments in support of your conclusions.

¹³ If the overall proofs you submit (not necessarily in order) are sufficient to satisfy the audience to whom you are speaking, your counselor will consider it satisfactory. The counselor will ask himself, viewing it from the mind of the audience, “Was I convinced?” If he was, then he will commend you on your presentation.

14. What is an effective summary?

¹⁴ Effective summary. Some kind of summary is usually essential to convincing argumentation. It is a final appeal to reason, enhancing appreciation for the arguments used. A summary should not be simply a restatement of facts, although basically it is simply a matter of “since this is so, and since that is so, therefore we conclude . . .” This aspect is designed to tie all the points together and draw them to a conclusion. Many times it is the effective summary that drives home the arguments so they really convince.

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15, 16. Why must we help the audience to reason?

¹⁵ Even though the arguments you use in a talk may be sound, it is not enough simply to state the facts. You must present them in such a manner that you help the audience to reason, to understand your arguments and to arrive at the same conclusions that you do. This is what the Speech Counsel slip refers to as “Audience helped to reason.”

¹⁶ You should desire this quality because God reasons with us. Also, Jesus explained his parables to his disciples and equipped them to teach these same truths to others. Helping your audience to reason, then, means to use those techniques necessary to help your audience to understand your argument, come to your conclusions and be equipped to use your arguments to teach someone else.

17, 18. How is common ground maintained?

¹⁷ Common ground maintained. What you say as well as how you say it is vital in establishing a common ground at the outset of your talk. But this common ground must not be lost as the talk progresses or else you will lose your audience as well. You must continue to express your points in such a way that they will appeal to the mind of those in your audience. This requires that you keep in mind their viewpoint on the subject being discussed and use this knowledge to help them to see the reasonableness of your arguments.

¹⁸ A classic example of establishing a common ground and maintaining it to the end, that is, helping the audience to reason, is the argument of the apostle Paul, as recorded in Acts 17:22-31. Notice how he established a common ground at the outset and tactfully maintained it throughout his entire talk. When he concluded he had convinced some of his audience of the truth, including a judge who was present.—Acts 17:33, 34.

19-23. Suggest methods by which points can be adequately developed.

¹⁹ Adequate development of points. In order for an audience to reason on a subject they must have at their disposal sufficient information presented in such a way that they do not reject arguments simply because they do not fully understand them. It is up to you to help them.

²⁰ To do it effectively, take care not to cover too many points. The good of your material will be lost if presented hurriedly. Take time to explain points thoroughly, so your audience will not only hear them but understand them. When you state an important point, take time to develop it. Answer such questions as Why? Who? How? What? When? Where? In this way help your audience to grasp the idea more fully. At times you can present arguments for and against a point to emphasize the reasonableness of your position. Likewise, after stating a principle, you may find it advantageous to illustrate it so the audience will see its practical application. Of course, discretion must be used. The extent to which any point is developed will depend on the time available and the relative importance of the point to the subject under discussion.

²¹ Questions are always good in helping an audience to reason. Rhetorical questions, that is, questions presented to the audience without expecting an answer from them, accompanied with appropriate pauses, will stimulate thinking. If you are talking to only one or two persons, as in the field ministry, you can draw them out with questions as you go along, and in this way be sure that they are grasping and accepting the ideas being presented.

²² Since you want to lead the mind of those in your audience, you must build on things they already know, whether from their own experience or from an earlier part of your own discussion. So, in determining whether you have adequately developed certain points, you must take into consideration what your audience already knew about the subject.

²³ It is always important to watch the reaction of your audience to make sure that they are following you. Where necessary, go back and clarify points before proceeding to the next argument. Unless you take care to help them to reason, they may easily lose your train of thought.

24. Making application of arguments for your audience serves what good purpose?

²⁴ Application made for audience. When presenting any argument, be sure to follow through by clearly pointing out how it bears on the issue under consideration. Also, include motivation in the talk, urging your hearers to take action consistent with the facts that have been presented. If they have truly been convinced by what you said, they will be ready to act.

Study 32

Sense Stress and Modulation

1, 2. What does sense stress do for a talk?

¹ Sense stress and modulation combine to make a talk meaningful and colorful. Without them, thoughts become distorted and interest lags. Since sense stress is usually the easier of the two to master, we will give it attention first.

² Keep in mind what sense stress is to accomplish. It is to emphasize words or thoughts in such a way