JEWS, Christians, and Muslims have often disagreed about many things. Yet, in spite of their differences, these faiths hold at least one thing in common: profound respect for the man known as Moses. Jews recognize him as “the greatest of all the Jewish teachers”​—the founder of the Jewish nation. Christians regard him as a forerunner of Jesus Christ. Muslims view Moses as among their first and greatest prophets.

Moses is thus one of the most influential men in human history. Even so, for well over a century, Moses has come under fire from both scholars and clerics. Many challenge the belief not only that Moses performed miracles and led the Israelites out of Egypt but also that he even existed. The book Moses​—A Life, by Jonathan Kirsch, concludes: “All that we can say about the historical Moses is that someone like the man described in the Bible might have lived at some unknowable time and place in the far-distant past, and his exploits might have been the grain of sand around which the pearly accretions of legend and lore slowly built up over the centuries until he became the rich and provocative figure whom we find in the pages of the Bible.”

At first glance, such skepticism might seem to have merit. For example, critics observe that archaeological proof has been found to confirm the existence of such Bible personages as Israelite King Jehu, but no archaeological evidence has been found to confirm the existence of Moses. This is hardly proof that Moses is a myth, however. Skeptics once argued that others mentioned in the Bible, such as Babylonian King Belshazzar and Assyrian King Sargon, were likewise myths​—until archaeology later confirmed their historicity.

Author Jonathan Kirsch reminds us: “The remnants and relics of biblical Israel are so sparse that the utter absence of Moses in any source except the Bible itself is neither surprising nor decisive.” According to Kirsch, some thus argue that it is unlikely that Moses could be a mere figment of someone’s imagination, since “a life story so rich in detail and dialogue, so complex . . . , could not have been made up.”

Whether you are a believer or not, you likely have at least a passing acquaintance with the main events of Moses’ life: his encounter with God at the burning bush, the Exodus of Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, the splitting of the Red Sea. But is there reason to believe that any of these things really happened? Or is Moses little more than a mythological figure? The next article addresses these fascinating questions.

MOSES was born under the shadow of death. His people were a group of nomadic families who had settled in Egypt with their father Jacob, or Israel, to escape starvation. For decades they had coexisted peacefully with their Egyptian neighbors. But then came an ominous change. A respected historical report says: “There arose over Egypt a new king . . . And he proceeded to say to his people: ‘Look! The people of the sons of Israel are more numerous and mightier than we are. Come on! Let us deal shrewdly with them, for fear they may multiply.’” The plan? To control the Israelite population by making them “slave under tyranny” and then by ordering the Hebrew midwives to kill any male children that they delivered. (Exodus 1:8-10, 13, 14) Because of the courage of their midwives who refused to obey the order, the Israelites prospered nevertheless. Hence, Egypt’s king decreed: “Every newborn son you are to throw into the river Nile.”​—Exodus 1:22.

One Israelite couple, Amram and Jochebed, “did not fear the order of the king.” (Hebrews 11:23) Jochebed gave birth to a son who would later be described as “divinely beautiful.”a (Acts 7:20) Perhaps they somehow discerned that this child was favored by God. In any event, they refused to give their child up for execution. At the risk of their own lives, they decided to conceal him.

After three months, Moses’ parents could no longer hide him. Running out of options, they took action. Jochebed placed the infant in a papyrus vessel and set him afloat on the Nile River. Unwittingly, she was launching him into history!​—Exodus 2:3, 4.

Credible Events?

Many scholars today dismiss these events as fiction. “The fact is,” says Christianity Today, “that not one shred of direct archaeological evidence has been found for [the years] the children of Israel sojourned in Egypt.” While direct physical proof may be lacking, there is considerable indirect evidence that the Bible account is credible. In his book Israel in Egypt, Egyptologist James K. Hoffmeier says: “Archaeological data clearly demonstrates that Egypt was frequented by the peoples of the Levant [countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean], especially as a result of climatic problems that resulted in drought . . . Thus, for a period roughly from 1800 to 1540 B.C., Egypt was an attractive place for the Semitic-speaking people of western Asia to migrate.”

Furthermore, it has long been acknowledged that the Bible’s description of Egyptian slavery is accurate. The book Moses​—A Life reports: “The biblical account of the oppression of the Israelites appears to be corroborated in one often-reproduced tomb painting from ancient Egypt in which the making of mud bricks by a gang of slaves is depicted in explicit detail.”

The Bible’s description of the tiny ark Jochebed used likewise rings true. The Bible says that it was made of papyrus, which, according to Cook’s Commentary, “was commonly used by the Egyptians for light and swift boats.”

Still, is it not hard to believe that a national leader would order the cold-blooded murder of infants? Scholar George Rawlinson reminds us: “Infanticide . . . has prevailed widely at different times and places, and been regarded as a trivial matter.” Indeed, one need not look far to find equally chilling examples of mass murder in modern times. The Bible account may be disturbing, but it is all too credible.

Adopted Into Pharaoh’s Household

The fate of Jochebed’s infant was not left to chance. She “put [the ark] among the reeds by the bank of the river Nile.” This was likely a spot where she hoped it might be discovered. Here Pharaoh’s daughter came to bathe, perhaps regularly.b​—Exodus 2:2-4.

The tiny ark was quickly spotted. “When [Pharaoh’s daughter] opened it she got to see the child, and here the boy was weeping. At that she felt compassion for him, although she said: ‘This is one of the children of the Hebrews.’” The Egyptian princess thus decided to adopt him. Whatever name his parents had originally called him is long forgotten. Today he is known the world over by the name his adoptive mother gave him​—Moses.c​—Exodus 2:5-10.

Is it not farfetched, though, to believe that an Egyptian princess would take in such a child? No, for Egyptian religion taught that kind deeds were a requisite for entrance into heaven. As for the adoption itself, archaeologist Joyce Tyldesley observes: “Egyptian women achieved parity with Egyptian men. They enjoyed the same legal and economic rights, at least in theory, and . . . women could make adoptions.” The ancient Adoption Papyrus actually documents one Egyptian woman’s adoption of her slaves. As for the hiring of Moses’ mother as a wet nurse, The Anchor Bible Dictionary says: “The payment of Moses’ natural mother to nurse him . . . echoes identical arrangements in Mesopotamian adoption contracts.”

Now that he had been adopted, would Moses’ Hebrew heritage be kept from him as a dark secret? Some Hollywood films have made it appear that way. The Scriptures indicate otherwise. His sister, Miriam, cleverly arranged for Moses to be nursed by his own mother, Jochebed. Surely this godly woman would not have concealed the truth from her son! And since children in ancient times were often breast-fed for several years, Jochebed had ample opportunity to teach Moses about ‘the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.’ (Exodus 3:6) Such a spiritual foundation served Moses well, for after being handed over to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.” The claim of historian Josephus that Moses rose to the rank of general in a war with Ethiopia cannot be verified. However, the Bible does say that Moses “was powerful in his words and deeds.”d​—Acts 7:22.

By the age of 40, Moses was likely poised to become a prominent Egyptian leader. Power and wealth could be his if he remained in Pharaoh’s household. Then an event took place that changed his life.

Exile in Midian

One day Moses “caught sight of a certain Egyptian striking a certain Hebrew of his brothers.” For years, Moses had enjoyed the best of both the Hebrew and Egyptian worlds. But seeing a fellow Israelite beaten​—perhaps in a life-threatening manner—​moved Moses to make a dramatic choice. (Exodus 2:11) He “refused to be called the son of the daughter of Pharaoh, choosing to be ill-treated with the people of God.”​—Hebrews 11:24, 25.

Moses took swift and irrevocable action: “He struck the Egyptian down and hid him in the sand.” (Exodus 2:12) This was not the act of someone “given to sudden outbursts of anger,” as one critic alleged. It was likely an act of faith​—albeit misguided—​in God’s promise that Israel would be delivered from Egypt. (Genesis 15:13, 14) Perhaps Moses naively believed that his actions would spur his people on to revolt. (Acts 7:25) To his chagrin, though, his fellow Israelites refused to acknowledge his leadership. When news of the killing reached Pharaoh, Moses was forced to flee into exile. He settled in Midian, marrying a woman named Zipporah, the daughter of a nomadic chieftain named Jethro.

For 40 long years, Moses lived as a simple shepherd, his hope of being a deliverer shattered. One day, though, he drove Jethro’s flocks to a spot near Mount Horeb. There, Jehovah’s angel appeared to Moses in a burning bush. Picture the scene: “Bring my people the sons of Israel out of Egypt,” God commands. But the Moses who replies is hesitant, diffident, unsure of himself. “Who am I,” he pleads, “that I should go to Pharaoh and that I have to bring the sons of Israel out of Egypt?” He even reveals a personal flaw that some moviemakers have obscured: He evidently has a speech impediment. How different Moses is from the heroes of ancient myths and legends! His 40 years of shepherding have humbled and mellowed this man. Although Moses is unsure of himself, God is confident that he is suited for leadership!​—Exodus 3:1–4:20.

Deliverance From Egypt

Moses leaves Midian and appears before Pharaoh, demanding that God’s people be freed. When the stubborn monarch refuses, ten devastating plagues are unleashed. The tenth plague results in the death of the firstborn of Egypt, and a broken Pharaoh finally sets the Israelites free.​—Exodus, chapters 5-13.

These events are well-known to most readers. But are any of them historical? Some argue that since the Pharaoh is not named, the account must be fiction.e However, Hoffmeier, quoted earlier, notes that Egyptian scribes often deliberately omitted the names of Pharaoh’s enemies. He argues: “Surely historians would not dismiss the historicity of Thutmose III’s Megiddo campaign because the names of the kings of Kadesh and Megiddo are not recorded.” Hoffmeier suggests that Pharaoh is unnamed for “good theological reasons.” For one thing, by leaving Pharaoh unnamed, the account draws attention to God, not Pharaoh.

Even so, critics balk at the notion of a large-scale exodus of Jews from Egypt. Scholar Homer W. Smith argued that such a mass movement “would certainly have resounded loudly in Egyptian or Syrian history . . . It is more likely that the legend of the exodus is a garbled and fanciful account of the flight from Egypt to Palestine of a relatively few members.”

True, no Egyptian record of this event has been found. But the Egyptians were not above altering historical records when the truth proved to be embarrassing or went against their political interests. When Thutmose III came to power, he tried to obliterate the memory of his predecessor, Hatshepsut. Says Egyptologist John Ray: “Her inscriptions were erased, her obelisks surrounded by a wall, and her monuments forgotten. Her name does not appear in later annals.” Similar attempts to alter or conceal embarrassing facts have even taken place in modern times.

As for the lack of archaeological evidence for the wilderness sojourn, we must remember that the Jews were nomads. They built no cities; they planted no crops. Presumably, they left behind little more than footprints. Still, convincing evidence of that sojourn can be found within the Bible itself. Reference is made to it throughout that sacred book. (1 Samuel 4:8; Psalm 78; Psalm 95; Psalm 106; 1 Corinthians 10:1-5) Significantly, Jesus Christ also testified that the wilderness events took place.​—John 3:14.

Unquestionably, then, the Bible’s account of Moses is credible, truthful. Even so, he lived a long time ago. What impact can Moses have on your life today?

TO MANY scholars and critics, Moses is little more than a figure of mythology. They reject the Bible’s account, applying standards of proof that would demand that men like Plato and Socrates also be dismissed as myths.

As we have seen, though, there is no legitimate reason to reject Bible accounts of Moses. On the contrary, for people of faith, there is abundant evidence that the entire Bible is “the word of God.”a (1 Thessalonians 2:13; Hebrews 11:1) For such ones, studying the life of Moses is no mere academic exercise but, rather, a means of building faith.

The Real Moses

Moviemakers often highlight Moses’ heroism and physical courage​—qualities that have audience appeal. Granted, Moses did have courage. (Exodus 2:16-19) But he was first and foremost a man of faith. God was real to Moses​—so real that later the apostle Paul said that Moses “continued steadfast as seeing the One who is invisible.”​—Hebrews 11:24-28.

Moses thus teaches us the need to cultivate a relationship with God. In our daily lives, we too can behave as if seeing God! If we do so, we will never act in a way that displeases him. Note, too, that Moses’ faith was instilled in him while he was a mere babe. His faith was deep enough to survive exposure to “all the wisdom of the Egyptians.” (Acts 7:22) What an encouragement that is to parents to begin teaching their children about God from infancy!​—Proverbs 22:6; 2 Timothy 3:15.

Also noteworthy was Moses’ humility. He was “the meekest of all the men who were upon the surface of the ground.” (Numbers 12:3) Moses was thus willing to admit his mistakes. He writes of his own negligence in failing to have his son circumcised. (Exodus 4:24-26) He candidly relates his failure to give God glory on one occasion and the devastating punishment God meted out. (Numbers 20:2-12; Deuteronomy 1:37) Further, Moses was willing to take suggestions from others. (Exodus 18:13-24) Would not husbands, fathers, and other men in authority do well to imitate Moses?

True, some critics challenge whether Moses was truly meek, citing the violent actions he took. (Exodus 32:26-28) Says writer Jonathan Kirsch: “The biblical Moses is seldom humble and never mild, and his conduct cannot always be regarded as righteous. At certain terrifying moments, . . . Moses rears up as arrogant, bloodthirsty, and cruel.” Such criticism is painfully narrow. It overlooks the fact that Moses’ actions were driven, not by cruelty, but by a passionate love of justice and an intolerance of wickedness. In these days when it is fashionable to tolerate immoral life-styles, Moses stands as a reminder of the need to have uncompromising standards of morality.​—Psalm 97:10.

The Legacy of Moses’ Writings

Moses left behind an astonishing collection of writings. These include poetry (Job, Psalm 90), historic prose (Genesis, Exodus, Numbers), genealogies (Genesis, chapters 5, 11, 19, 22, 25), and a remarkable body of legislation called the Law of Moses (Exodus, chapters 20-40; Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy). This divinely inspired Law contained concepts, laws, and principles of government that were centuries ahead of their time.

In lands where the head of State also serves as the head of the Church, the result is often intolerance, religious oppression, and the abuse of power. The Law of Moses included the principle of separation of Church and State. The king was not allowed to take on priestly duties.​—2 Chronicles 26:16-18.

The Law of Moses also contained concepts of hygiene and disease control, such as the quarantining of sick people and the disposal of human waste, that harmonize with current science. (Leviticus 13:1-59; 14:38, 46; Deuteronomy 23:13) This is remarkable considering that much of Egyptian medicine in Moses’ day was a dangerous mixture of quackery and superstition. In developing lands today, millions could be spared from disease and death if the standards of hygiene taught by Moses were practiced.

Christians are not obliged to follow the Mosaic Law. (Colossians 2:13, 14) But studying it is still of great value. That Law exhorted Israel to give God exclusive devotion and to shun idolatry. (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 5:9) It commanded children to honor their parents. (Exodus 20:12) The Law also condemned murder, adultery, stealing, lying, and coveting. (Exodus 20:13-17) Those principles are cherished by Christians today.

A Prophet Like Moses

We live in distressing times. Mankind certainly needs a leader like Moses​—someone who has not only power and authority but also integrity, courage, compassion, and a heartfelt love of justice. When Moses died, the Israelites must have wondered, ‘Will the world see the likes of him again?’ Moses himself answered that question.

Moses’ writings explain how sickness and death came about in the first place and why God permitted wickedness to continue. (Genesis 3:1-19; Job, chapters 1, 2) At Genesis 3:15, the very first divine prophecy is recorded​—a promise that evil will eventually be crushed! How? The prophecy indicated that an individual would be born through whom salvation would come. This promise gave birth to the hope that a Messiah would arise and deliver mankind. But who would the Messiah be? Moses helps us to identify him conclusively.

Toward the end of his life, Moses uttered these portentous words: “A prophet from your own midst, from your brothers, like me, is what Jehovah your God will raise up for you​—to him you people should listen.” (Deuteronomy 18:15) The apostle Peter later applied those words directly to Jesus.​—Acts 3:20-26.

Most Jewish commentators vigorously deny any comparison of Moses with Jesus. They argue that the words of this text apply to any true prophet who came after Moses. However, according to Tanakh​—The Holy Scriptures, by the Jewish Publication Society, Deuteronomy 34:10 says: “Never again did there arise in Israel a prophet like Moses—​whom the LORD singled out, face to face.”

Yes, many faithful prophets, such as Isaiah and Jeremiah, came after Moses. But none had the unique relationship with God that Moses enjoyed​—speaking with him “face to face.” Moses’ promise of a prophet ‘like him’ must therefore apply to one individual​—the Messiah! It is noteworthy that before the advent of Christianity​—and religious persecution from false Christians—​Jewish scholars viewed things similarly. Echoes of this can be seen in Jewish writings, such as the Midrash Rabbah, which describes Moses as the forerunner of the “latter Redeemer,” or Messiah.

That Jesus was like Moses in many ways cannot be denied. (See the box “Jesus​—A Prophet Like Moses.”) Jesus has power and authority. (Matthew 28:19) Jesus is “mild-tempered and lowly in heart.” (Matthew 11:29) Jesus hates lawlessness and injustice. (Hebrews 1:9) He can therefore give us the leadership we sorely need! It is he who will soon crush wickedness and bring the earth to the Paradise conditions that the Bible describes.b