JERUSALEM
(Je·ruʹsa·lem) [possession (or foundation) of twofold peace].
The capital city of the ancient nation of Israel from about the year 1070 B.C.E. onward. Following the division of the nation into two kingdoms (997 B.C.E.), Jerusalem continued as the capital of the southern kingdom of Judah. Throughout the Scriptures there are more than eight hundred references to Jerusalem.
NAME
The earliest recorded name of the city is “Salem.” (Gen. 14:18) Whereas some try to associate the meaning of the name Jerusalem with that of a West Semitic god named Shalem, he apostle Paul shows that “peace” is the true meaning of the latter half of the name. (Heb. 7:2) The Hebrew spelling of this latter half suggests a dual form, hence “twofold peace.” In Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) texts the city was called Urusalim (or Ur-sa-li-im-mu). On this basis some scholars give the meaning of the name as “City of Peace.” But the Hebrew form, which logically ought to govern, apparently means “Possession [or foundation] of twofold peace.”
Many other expressions and titles were used in the Scriptures to refer to the city. The psalmist on one occasion uses the earlier name, Salem. (Ps. 76:2) Other appellations were: “city of Jehovah” (Isa. 60:14); “town of the grand King” (Ps. 48:2; compare Matthew 5:35); “City of Righteousness” and “Faithful Town” (Isa. 1:26); “Zion” (Isa. 33:20); and “holy city” (Neh. 11:1; Isa. 48:2; 52:1; Matt. 4:5; the name “El Kuds,” meaning “Holy City,” is still the popular name for it in Arabic).
LOCATION
Jerusalem’s importance and greatness were not due to its geographical situation as a port or river city or trade center, nor due to fertile surroundings. Comparatively remote from principal international trade routes, it lay on the edge of an arid wilderness (the wilderness of Judah), its water supplies being limited.
Nevertheless, two internal trade routes did intersect near the city. One ran in a N-S direction along the top of the plateau forming the ‘backbone’ of ancient Palestine and this route linked together such cities as Dothan, Shechem, Bethel, Bethlehem, Hebron and Beer-sheba. The second route ran in an E-W direction from Rabbat-Ammon, cut through torrent valleys to the Jordan River basin, ascended the steep Judean slopes, and then wound down the western slopes to the Mediterranean coast and the seaport town of Joppa. Additionally, Jerusalem was centrally located for the whole area of the Promised Land, hence appropriate for a state administration center.
Lying about thirty-five miles (c. 56 kilometers) inland from the Mediterranean Sea and some fifteen miles (c. 24 kilometers) due W of the northern end of the Dead Sea, Jerusalem rests among the hills of the central mountain range. (Compare Psalm 125:2.) Its altitude of about 2,550 feet (c. 777 meters) above sea level made it one of the highest capital cities in the world. Its “loftiness” is mentioned in the Scriptures, and travelers had to ‘go up’ from the coastal plains to reach the city. (Ps. 48:2; 122:3, 4; Isa. 2:1-3) The climate is pleasant, with cool nights, an average annual temperature of 63° F. (c. 17° C.) and an annual rainfall of about twenty-four inches (.6 meter), the rain falling mainly between November and April.
Despite its height, Jerusalem does not stand up above the surrounding terrain. The traveler gets a full view of the city only when quite close. To the E the Mount of Olives rises 2,640 feet (c. 805 meters) high, on the N side Mount Scopus reaches 2,712 feet (c. 827 meters), and the encircling hills on the S and W rise as high as 2,657 feet (c. 810 meters); hence these elevations are all more than one hundred feet (c. 30 meters) above the small plateau on which Jerusalem stands.
In times of war, this situation would seem to constitute a serious disadvantage. Any drawback, however, was compensated for by the city’s being surrounded on three sides by steep-walled valleys: the torrent valley of Kidron on the E and the Valley of Hinnom on the S and W. A central valley, apparently referred to by Josephus as the Tyropean (or “Cheese-makers’”) Valley, bisected the city area into eastern and western hills or spurs. This central valley has filled in considerably throughout the centuries, but a visitor still must make a rather sharp descent to a central hollow and then climb up the other side when crossing the city. There is evidence that, in addition to the N-S central valley, two smaller E-W valleys or depressions further divided the hills, one cutting across the eastern hill and the other across the western. The entire area covered by the ancient city was comparatively small, evidently never exceeding three-quarters of a square mile (c. 195 hectares) in extent.
The steep valley walls seem to have been incorporated into the city’s defensive wall system in all periods. The only side of the city lacking in natural defense was that on the N, and here the walls were made especially strong. When attacking the city in 70 C.E., General Titus, according to Josephus, was faced with three successive walls on that side.
WATER SUPPLY
Jerusalem’s inhabitants suffered from serious food shortages in siege, but evidently had no great water problem. For, in spite of its nearness to the arid Judean wilderness, the city had access to a constant supply of fresh water and had adequate storage facilities within the city walls.
Two springs, En-rogel and Gihon, were located near the city. The first lay a little S of the junction of the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys. While a valuable source of water, its position made it inaccessible during times of attack or siege. The Gihon spring lay on the W side of the Kidron Valley, alongside what came to be called the “city of David.” Though outside the city walls, it was close enough that a tunnel could be excavated and a shaft sunk, enabling the city’s inhabitants to draw water without going outside the protective walls. This was done early in the city’s history, according to the archaeological evidence. In 1961 and 1962, excavations revealed a substantial early wall, situated below the upper end or entrance of the tunnel, hence enclosing it. It is thought to be the wall of the old Jebusite city.
Over the years, additional tunnels and canals were formed to channel Gihon’s waters. One channel ran from the mouth of the cave of the Gihon spring down the valley and around the end of the SE hill to a pool located at the junction of the Hinnom Valley with the central or Tyropean Valley. According to what has been found, it was in the form of a trench, covered with flat stones, and tunneled through the hillside at points. Openings at intervals allowed for water to be drawn off for irrigation of the valley terraces below. The canal’s gradient of less than two-tenths of an inch for each yard (about four or five millimeters for each meter) produced a slow gentle flow, reminding one of “the waters of the Shiloah that are going gently.” (Isa. 8:6) It is suggested that this canal, unprotected and vulnerable, was constructed during Solomon’s reign, when peace and security were predominant.
Jerusalem’s homes and buildings were evidently equipped with underground cisterns, supplementing the supply of water from springs. Rainwater collected from the roofs was stored therein, kept clean and cool. The temple area seems to have had particularly large cisterns, archaeologists claiming to have plotted thirty-seven cisterns there with a total capacity of about 10,000,000 gallons (c. 37,850,000 liters), one cistern alone estimated as capable of holding 2,000,000 gallons (7,570,000 liters).
Reservoirs, commonly called the “Pools of Solomon” (compare Ecclesiastes 2:6), are found near Bethlehem and supplied water by means of two aqueducts or conduits. Though only about twelve miles (c. 19 kilometers) direct distance, the winding course of the lower conduit travels some forty miles (c. 64 kilometers) to reach Jerusalem. The higher-level conduit is more direct and tunnels through hillsides en route. It is believed to be of later construction, perhaps from Herod’s era. According to calculations, both channels crossed the central or Tyropean Valley on an elevated aqueduct and reached the temple platform, augmenting the supplies of water there. Ancient geographer Strabo (first century B.C.E.) described Jerusalem as “a rocky well-enclosed fortress; within well-watered, without wholly dry.”
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Though much research and excavation have been carried out, few concrete facts have been determined as to the city of Bible times. Various factors have restricted investigation or limited its value. Jerusalem has had almost continuous occupation in the Common Era, thus severely reducing the area available for excavation. Then, too, the city was destroyed a number of times, with new cities built on top of the ruins and often made, in part, from material of those ruins. The piling up of debris and rubble, in some places over a hundred feet (c. 30 meters) deep, has obscured the early contours of the site and made the interpretation of the excavated evidence a precarious task. Some wall sections, pools, water tunnels and ancient tombs have been unearthed, but very little written material. Principal archaeological discoveries have come from the SE hill, which now lies outside the city walls.
The main sources of information regarding the ancient city, therefore, remain the Bible and the description of the first-century city given by Jewish historian Josephus.
EARLY HISTORY
The first historical mention of the city comes in the decade between 1943 and 1933 B.C.E., when Abraham’s encounter with Melchizedek took place. Melchizedek was “king of Salem” and “Priest of the Most High God.” (Gen. 14:17-20) However, the origin of the city, and the population that composed it, are as wrapped in obscurity as is the origin of its king-priest Melchizedek.—Compare Hebrews 7:1-3.
Apparently another event in Abraham’s life involved the vicinity of Jerusalem. Abraham was commanded to offer up his son Isaac on “one of the mountains” in the “land of Moriah.” The temple built by Solomon was erected on “Mount Moriah” on a site that previously had been a threshing floor. (Gen. 22:2; 2 Chron. 3:1) Thus, the Bible apparently links the place of Abraham’s attempted sacrifice with the mountainous region around Jerusalem. (See MORIAH.) Whether Melchizedek was still living then is not revealed; but Salem likely remained friendly territory for Abraham.
The Tell el-Amarna tablets, written by Canaanite rulers to their Egyptian overlord, include seven letters from the king or governor of Jerusalem (Urusalim). These letters were written prior to the Israelite conquest of Canaan. (See EGYPT, EGYPTIAN, p. 497.) Thus, Jerusalem, in the approximately 450-year period between Abraham’s meeting with Melchizedek and the Israelite conquest, had become the possession of pagan Hamitic Canaanites and was under the domination of the Hamitic Egyptian Empire.
The account of Joshua’s sweeping conquest of Canaan lists Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, among the confederate kings attacking Gibeon. His name (meaning “lord of righteousness”) closely parallels that of Jerusalem’s earlier King Melchizedek (“king of righteousness”), but Adoni-zedek was no worshiper of the Most High God, Jehovah.—Josh. 10:1-5, 23, 26; 12:7, 8, 10.
In the allotting of tribal territories, Jerusalem was on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin, the specific border running along the Valley of Hinnom. This would place at least what comprised the later “city of David,” situated on the ridge between the Kidron and Tyropean Valleys, within the territory of Benjamin. Apparently the Canaanite city had additional settlements or “suburbs,” however, and part of the settled area may have overlapped into Judah’s territory to the W and S of the Valley of Hinnom. Judah is credited with the initial capture of Jerusalem at Judges 1:8, but after the invading forces moved on, the Jebusite inhabitants apparently remained (or returned) in sufficient force to form a later pocket of resistance that neither Judah nor Benjamin could break. Thus, of both Judah and Benjamin it is said that the ‘Jebusites continued dwelling with them in Jerusalem.’ (Josh. 15:63; Judg. 1:21) This situation continued for some four centuries, and the city was at times referred to as “Jebus,” a “city of foreigners.”—Judg. 19:10-12; 1 Chron. 11:4, 5.
DURING THE UNITED KINGDOM
King Saul’s headquarters were at Gibeah in the territory of Benjamin. King David’s capital city was first at Hebron in Judah, about nineteen miles (c. 31 kilometers) S of Jerusalem. After ruling there a total of seven and a half years (2 Sam. 5:5), he determined to transfer the capital to Jerusalem. This was by divine direction (2 Chron. 6:4-6), Jehovah having spoken centuries earlier of the ‘site that He would choose to place his Name thereon.’—Deut. 12:5; 26:2; compare 2 Chronicles 7:12.
The Jebusites at that time seem to have had their city on the eastern spur, toward the southern end thereof. They were confident of the impregnability of their fortress city, with its natural defenses of steep valley walls on three sides and, probably, special fortifications on the N. It was known as “the place difficult to approach” (1 Chron. 11:7), and the Jebusites taunted David that even the ‘blind and the lame of the city, could hold off his attacks. But David conquered the city, his attack being spearheaded by Joab, who evidently gained entry into the city by means of “the water tunnel.” (2 Sam. 5:6-9; 1 Chron. 11:4-8) Scholars are not entirely certain of the meaning of the Hebrew term here rendered “water tunnel,” but generally accept this or similar terms (“water shaft,” RS, AT; “gutter,” JP) as the most likely meaning. The brief account does not state just how the city’s defenses were breached. Since the discovery of the tunnel and shaft leading to the Gihon spring, the popular view is that Joab led men up this vertical shaft, through the sloping tunnel and into the city in a surprise attack. By whatever means, the city was taken and David moved his capital there (1070 B.C.E.). The Jebusite stronghold now came to be known as the “city of David,” also called “Zion.”—2 Sam. 5:7.
David began a building program within the area, apparently also improving the city’s defenses. (2 Sam. 5:9-11; 1 Chron. 11:8) The “Mound” (Heb., Mil·lohʼʹ) referred to here (2 Sam. 5:9) and in later accounts (1 Ki. 9:15, 24; 11:27) was some geographical or structural feature of the city, well-known then but unidentifiable today. When David later transferred the sacred “ark of Jehovah” from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem, the city became the religious, as well as administrative, center of the nation.—2 Sam. 6:11, 12, 17; see DAVID, CITY OF; BURIAL PLACES OF THE KINGS, OR, OF DAVID.
There is no record of Jerusalem’s being attacked by enemy forces during David’s reign, as he carried the battle to his foes. (Compare 2 Samuel 5:17-25; 8:1-14; 11:1.) On one occasion, however, David saw fit to abandon the city before the advance of rebel forces led by his own son, Absalom. The king’s retreat may have been to avoid having blood shed in civil war at this place where Jehovah’s name rested. (2 Sam. 15:13-17) Whatever the motive for the retreat, it led to the fulfillment of the inspired prophecy spoken by Nathan. (2 Sam. 12:11; 16:15-23) David did not allow the ark of the covenant to be evacuated with him but ordered the faithful priests to return it to the city, God’s chosen location. (2 Sam. 15:23-29) The description of the initial part of David’s flight as recorded at 2 Samuel chapter 15 outlines well the geographical features of the area on the E of the city.
Toward the close of his rule, David began preparing construction materials for the temple. (1 Chron. 22:1, 2; compare 1 Kings 6:7.) The hewn stones prepared may have been quarried in that area, for the bedrock of Jerusalem itself is easily cut and chiseled to size and shape, yet, upon exposure to the weather, hardens into durable and attractive building stones. There is evidence of an ancient quarry near the present Damascus Gate, vast quantities of rock having been cut out there in the course of time.
A further view of the layout of the terrain around Jerusalem, this time to the E and S, is given in the account of Solomon’s anointing by order of aged King David. Another son, Adonijah, was at the spring of En-rogel, plotting to seize the kingship, when Solomon was anointed by the spring of Gihon. The distance between the two points was short enough (less than a third of a mile [less than 500 meters]) that Adonijah and his coconspirators heard the noise of the horn and celebrations at Gihon.—1 Ki. 1:5-9, 32-41.
Solomon’s reign saw considerable building (and perhaps rebuilding) done within the city and expansion of its limits. (1 Ki. 3:1; 9:15-19, 24; 11:27; compare Ecclesiastes 2:3-6, 9.) The temple, his outstanding construction work, with its associated building and courtyards was built on Mount Moriah on the eastern ridge but N of the “city of David,” evidently in the area of the present-day “Dome of the Rock.” (2 Chron. 3:1; 1 Ki. 6:37, 38; 7:12) Other major buildings were Solomon’s own house or palace, the cedarwood House of the Forest of Lebanon, the Porch of Pillars and the judicial Porch of the Throne. (1 Ki. 7:1-8) This building complex was apparently situated S of the temple on the gradual slope running down toward the “city of David.”
DIVIDED KINGDOM (997-607 B.C.E.)
Jeroboam’s rebellion split the nation into two kingdoms, and Jerusalem was left as the capital of the two tribes, Benjamin and Judah, under Solomon’s son Rehoboam. Levites and priests also moved to the city where Jehovah’s name rested, thereby strengthening Rehoboam’s kingship. (2 Chron. 11:1-17) Jerusalem was now no longer at the geographical center of the kingdom, being only a few miles from the border of the hostile northern ten-tribe kingdom. Within five years of Solomon’s death, the city experienced the first of a number of invasions. King Shishak of Egypt attacked the kingdom of Judah, doubtless viewing it as vulnerable in its reduced state. Because of national unfaithfulness, he succeeded in entering Jerusalem, carrying off temple treasures and other valuables. Only because of repentance was a measure of divine protection granted, preventing actual ruin to the city.—1 Ki. 14:25, 26; 2 Chron. 12:2-12.
During faithful King Asa’s reign, King Baasha of the northern kingdom made an unsuccessful attempt to build up strength on Judah’s northern frontier to seal it off and prevent communication with Jerusalem (and possibly expressions of loyalty to the Judean kingdom by any of his subjects). (1 Ki. 15:17-22) The continuance of pure worship under the rule of Asa’s son Jehoshaphat brought divine protection and great benefits to the city, including improved provisions for the handling of legal cases.—2 Chron. 19:8-11; 20:1, 22, 23, 27-30.
Throughout the remainder of Jerusalem’s history as the capital of the Judean kingdom this pattern continued. True worship brought Jehovah’s blessing and protection; apostasy led to grave problems and vulnerability to attack. The reign of Jehoshaphat’s unfaithful son Jehoram (913-906 B.C.E.) saw the city invaded and looted a second time by an Arab-Philistine combine, this despite the strong defense walls. (2 Chron. 21:12-17) In the next century the deflection from a righteous course by King Jehoash resulted in Syrian forces ‘beginning to invade Judah and Jerusalem, the context implying that they were successful in entering the city. (2 Chron. 24:20-25) During Amaziah’s apostasy the northern kingdom of Israel invaded Judah, and broke down about 580 feet (c. 177 meters) of the vital northern wall between the Corner Gate (in the NW corner) and the Ephraim Gate (to the E of the Corner Gate). (2 Chron. 25:22-24) It is possible that, at some point prior to this, the city had expanded across the central valley onto the western ridge.
King Uzziah (829-777 B.C.E.) made notable additions to the city’s defenses, fortifying the (NW) Corner Gate and the Valley Gate (at the SW corner) with towers, as well as a tower at “the Buttress” (“the Angle,” RS, JB; “the Turning,” JP), apparently some part of the eastern wall not far from the royal buildings, either those of David or of Solomon. (2 Chron. 26:9; Neh. 3:24, 25) Uzziah also equipped the towers and corners with “engines of war,” likely mechanical catapults, for shooting arrows and large stones. (2 Chron. 26:14, 15) His son Jotham continued the building program.—2 Chron. 27:3, 4.
Following the apostate Ahaz, his son, faithful King Hezekiah, did cleansing and repair work in the temple area and arranged a great Passover celebration that drew worshipers to Jerusalem from all over the land, the northern kingdom included. (2 Chron. 29:1-5, 18, 19; 30:1, 10-26) This stimulus for true worship, however, was soon followed by attack from pagan quarters, mockers of the true God whose name rested on Jerusalem. In 732 B.C.E., eight years after Assyria’s conquest of the northern kingdom of Israel, Assyrian King Sennacherib made a scythelike sweep through Palestine, diverting some troops to threaten Jerusalem. (2 Chron. 32:1, 9) Hezekiah had readied the city for a siege. He stopped up the water sources outside the city to hide them and make things difficult for the enemy, strengthened the walls and fortified them. (2 Chron. 32:2-5, 27-30) It would seem that the “conduit” for bringing water into the city from the spring of Gihon was already constructed at this time, possibly being a peacetime project. (2 Ki. 20:20; 2 Chron. 32:30) If, as believed, it was the conduit that includes the tunnel cut through the side of the Kidron Valley with its termination at the Pool of Siloam in the Tyropean Valley, then it was no minor project to be completed in a few days. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, p. 110.) At any rate, the city’s strength lay not in its defensive systems and supplies, but in the protective power of Jehovah God, who said: “And I shall certainly defend this city to save it for my own sake and for the sake of David my servant.” (2 Ki. 19:32-34) The miraculous destruction of 185,000 Assyrian troops sent Sennacherib scurrying back to Assyria. (2 Ki. 19:35, 36) When the campaign account was recorded in the Assyrian annals, it boasted of Sennacherib’s shutting Hezekiah up inside Jerusalem like a ‘bird in a cage,’ but made no claim of capturing the city.—See SENNACHERIB.
The reign of Manasseh (716-661 B.C.E.) brought further wall construction along the Kidron Valley. It also saw the nation drift farther from true worship. (2 Chron. 33:1-9, 14) His grandson Josiah temporarily reversed this decline and during his rule the Valley of Hinnom, used by idolatrous persons for vile ceremonies, was “made unfit for worship,” likely desecrated by being made into a city garbage dump. (2 Ki. 23:10; 2 Chron. 33:6) The “Gate of the Ash-heaps” apparently opened out onto this valley. (Neh. 3:13, 14; see GEHENNA; HINNOM, VALLEY OF.) During Josiah’s time “the second quarter” (“the new town,” JB) of the city receives initial mention. (2 Ki. 22:14; 2 Chron. 34:22) This “second quarter” is generally understood to be the section of the city lying W or NW of the temple area.—Zeph. 1:10; see GATE, GATEWAY (Gates of Jerusalem).
After Josiah’s death, the situation deteriorated rapidly for Jerusalem, as four unfaithful kings followed each other in succession. In King Jehoiakim’s eighth year (620/619 B.C.E.) Judah came into vassalage to Babylon. Jehoiakim’s revolt three years later provoked a successful Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, looting of the city’s treasures and the deportation of the then king, Jehoiachin, and other citizens. (2 Ki. 24:1-16; 2 Chron. 36:5-10) Babylon’s appointee, King Zedekiah, tried to throw off the Babylonian yoke and in his ninth year (609/608 B.C.E.) Jerusalem again came under siege. (2 Ki. 24:17-20; 25:1; 2 Chron. 36:11-14) An Egyptian military force sent to relieve Jerusalem succeeded in drawing off the besiegers only temporarily. (Jer. 37:5-10) True to Jehovah’s prophecy through Jeremiah, the Babylonians returned and renewed the siege. (Jer. 34:1, 21, 22; 52:5-11) Jeremiah spent the latter part of the siege imprisoned in the “Courtyard of the Guard” (Jer. 32:2; 38:28), connected with “the King’s House.” (Neh. 3:25) Finally, nineteen months from the start of the siege, and its effects of starvation, disease and death, the walls of Jerusalem were breached, in Zedekiah’s eleventh year, and the city was taken.—2 Ki. 25:2-4; Jer. 39:1-3.
DESOLATION AND RESTORATION
The city fell on Tammuz 9, 607 B.C.E. A month later, on Ab 10, Nebuchadnezzar’s agent, Nebuzaradan, entered the conquered city and began demolition work, burning the temple and other buildings and pulling down the city walls. Jerusalem’s king and most of her people were exiled to Babylon, her treasures being carried away as plunder.—2 Ki. 25:7-17; 2 Chron. 36:17-20; Jer. 52:12-20.
The statement by archaeologist Conder that “the history of the ruined city remains a blank until Cyrus” is true, not only of Jerusalem, but also of the entire realm of the kingdom of Judah. Unlike the Assyrians, the Babylonian king moved no replacement peoples into the conquered region. A period of seventy years of desolation set in, even as prophesied.—Jer. 25:11; 2 Chron. 36:21.
In the “first year” (evidently as ruler over Babylon) of Cyrus the Persian (538/537 B.C.E.) the royal decree went forth freeing the exiled Jews to “go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and rebuild the house of Jehovah the God of Israel.” (Ezra 1:1-4) About 50,000 repatriates made the long trip to Jerusalem, carrying temple treasures with them. They arrived in time to celebrate the festival of booths in Tishri (October/November) 537 B.C.E. (Ezra 2:64, 65; 3:1-4) Temple rebuilding got under way under Governor Zerubbabel’s direction, and, after serious interference and the infiltration of some apathy among the returned Jews, was finally completed by March of 515 B.C.E. More exiles returned with priest-scribe Ezra in 468 B.C.E., bringing additional things “to beautify the house of Jehovah, which is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 7:27), this by authorization of King Artaxerxes (Longimanus). The treasures brought by them were worth nearly $5,000,000.—Ezra 8:25-27.
About a century and a half after Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest, the walls and gates of the city were still broken down. Nehemiah obtained permission from Artaxerxes to go to Jerusalem and remedy this situation. (Neh. 2:1-8) The account that follows of Nehemiah’s nighttime survey and of his apportioning the construction work to different family groups is a major source of information about the layout of the city at that time, especially of its gates. (Neh. 2:11-15; 3:1-32; see GATE, GATEWAY.) This rebuilding was in fulfillment of Daniel’s prophecy and marked the start of the seventy prophetic “weeks” involving the coming of the Messiah. (Dan. 9:24-27) Despite harassment, in the short space of fifty-two days, in the year 455 B.C.E., they ringed Jerusalem with a wall and gates.—Neh. 4:1-23; 6:15; 7:1.
Jerusalem was now “wide and great, [but] there were few people inside it.” (Neb. 7:4) Following the public reading of Scriptures and celebrations in the “public square that was before the Water Gate” on the E side of the city (Neh. 8:1-18), arrangements were made to build up the city’s population by bringing in one Israelite out of every ten to dwell there. This was done by casting lots, but there were evidently volunteers additionally. (Neh. 11:1, 2) A spiritual cleansing work was done to put the city’s population on a sound foundation as regards true worship. (Neh. 12:47–13:3) Nehemiah’s governorship lasted twelve years or more and embraced a trip to the Persian king’s court. Upon his return to Jerusalem, he found need for further cleansing. (Neh. 13:4-31) With the vigorous rooting out of apostasy he effected, the record of the Hebrew Scriptures closes, sometime after the year 443 B.C.E.
HELLENIC AND MACCABEAN CONTROL
The changeover from Medo-Persian to Greek control came in 333 B.C.E. with the conquest by Alexander the Great. The Greek historians make no mention of Alexander’s entry into Jerusalem. Yet the city did come under Greek dominion and it is reasonable to assume that it was not completely bypassed by Alexander. Josephus, in the first century C.E., records the Jewish tradition that, upon approaching Jerusalem, Alexander was met by the Jewish high priest and was shown the divinely inspired prophecies recorded by Daniel foretelling the lightning conquests by Greece. (Dan. 8:5-7, 20, 21) Whatever the case, Jerusalem seems to have survived the change in control free of any damage.
Following Alexander’s death, Jerusalem and Judea came under the control of the Ptolemies, who ruled out of Egypt. In 198 B.C.E. Antiochus the Great, ruling in Syria, after taking the fortified city of Sidon, captured Jerusalem, and Judah became a dominion of the Seleucid Empire. (Compare Daniel 11:16.) Jerusalem lay under Syrian rule for thirty years. Then, in the year 168 B.C.E., Syrian King Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), in his attempt to Hellenize completely the Jews, rededicated Jerusalem’s temple to Zeus (Jupiter) and profaned the altar by an unclean sacrifice. (1 Maccabees 1:57, 62; 2 Maccabees 6:1, 2, 5) This led to the Maccabean (or Hasmonean) revolt. After a three-year struggle, Judas Maccabaeus gained control of the city and temple and rededicated Jehovah’s altar to true worship on the anniversary of its profanation, Chislev 25, 165 B.C.E.—1 Maccabees 4:52-54; 2 Maccabees 10:5; compare John 10:22.
The war against the Seleucid rulers had not ended. The Jews appealed to Rome for help and thus a new power came on the Jerusalem scene in 161 B.C.E. (1 Maccabees 8:17, 18) Now Jerusalem began to come under the influence of the expanding Roman Empire. About 142 B.C.E., Simon Maccabeus was able to make Jerusalem the capital of a region ostensibly free from subservience to or taxation by Gentile nations. Aristobulus I, Jerusalem’s high priest, even assumed the title of “King” in 104 B.C.E. He was not, however, of the Davidic line.
Jerusalem was no ‘city of peace’ during this period. Internal quarrels, fired by selfish ambitions and worsened by rival religious factions—Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots and others—gravely weakened the city. A violent quarrel between Aristobulus II and his brother Hyrcanus resulted in Rome’s being called on to arbitrate the dispute. Under General Pompey, Roman forces besieged Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E. for three months in order to enter the city and settle the dispute. Twelve thousand Jews reportedly died, many at the hands of fellow Israelites.
It is in Josephus’ account of Pompey’s conquest that the archway across the Tyropean Valley is first mentioned. It served as a link between the eastern and western halves of the city and gave those on the western half direct access to the temple area.
The Idumean Antipater was now installed as Roman governor for Judea, a Maccabean being left as high priest and local ethnarch in Jerusalem. Later, Antipater’s son Herod (the Great) was appointed by Rome as “king” over Judea. He did not get control of Jerusalem until 37 or 36 B.C.E., from which date his rule effectively began.
UNDER HEROD THE GREAT
Herod’s rule was marked by an ambitious building program and the city enjoyed considerable prosperity. A theater, gymnasium and hippodrome, as well as other public buildings, were added. Herod also built a well-fortified royal palace, evidently on the NW corner of the city, where archaeologists believe they have found the foundation of one of the towers. Another fortress, the Castle of Antonia, lay near the temple and was connected with it by a passageway. (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV, chap. XI, par. 7) The Roman garrison could thus gain quick access to the temple area, as likely occurred when soldiers rescued Paul from a mob there.—Acts 21:31, 32; see ANTONIA, CASTLE OF.
Herod’s greatest work, however, was the reconstruction of the temple and its building complex. Beginning in his eighteenth year (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV, chap. XI, par. 1), the holy house itself was completed in a year and a half, but the work on the adjoining buildings and courtyards went on long after his death. (John 2:20) The total area encompassed was about fifteen to twenty acres (c. 6 to 8 hectares), double that of the previous temple area. Part of the western wall of the temple courtyard apparently still stands, known today as the “Wailing Wall.” Archaeologists date the lower nineteen courses of huge three-foot-high (c. .9 meter-high) blocks as from Herod’s construction.
FROM 2 B.C.E. TO 70 C.E.
The Christian Greek Scriptures now carry forward the description of events involving Jerusalem. Jesus’ birth took place, not at Jerusalem, but at nearby Bethlehem, “David’s city.” (Luke 2:10, 11) But the astrologers’ later report about the birth of the “king of the Jews” caused Herod and “all Jerusalem along with him” to become agitated. (Matt. 2:1-3) Shortly after issuing his infamous decree ordering the killing of Bethlehem’s babes, Herod died, evidently in the year 1 B.C.E. (See HEROD No. 1.) His son Archelaus then ruled as tetrarch over Jerusalem and Judea. Rome later removed Archelaus for misdemeanors and thereafter directly appointed governors ruled, as did Pontius Pilate during Jesus’ ministry.—Luke 3:1.
Jesus was taken to Jerusalem forty days after birth and presented at the temple as Mary’s firstborn. Aged Simeon and Anna rejoiced at seeing the promised Messiah, and Anna spoke of him “to all those waiting for Jerusalem’s deliverance.” (Luke 2:21-38; compare Leviticus 12:2-4.) How many other times he was taken to Jerusalem during his childhood years is not stated, only one visit, made when he was twelve, being specifically recorded. He then engaged in a discussion with teachers in the temple area, thus being occupied in the ‘house of his Father,’ in the chosen city of his Father.—Luke 2:41-49.
After his baptism and during his three-and-a-half-year ministry Jesus periodically visited Jerusalem, certainly being there for the three annual festivals, attendance at which was obligatory for all Jewish males. (Ex. 23:14-17) Much of his time, however, was spent outside the capital, as he preached and taught in Galilee and other regions of the land.
Aside from the temple area, where Jesus frequently taught, few other specific points in the city are mentioned in connection with his ministry. The pool of Bethzatha with its five colonnades (John 5:2) is thought to be the one that was unearthed just N of the temple area. The pool of Siloam is located on a slope of the southern part of the eastern ridge, receiving its water from the spring of Gihon through the conduit and tunnel attributed to Hezekiah’s time. (John 9:11) It is with regard to his final visit to Jerusalem that a more detailed picture is given.
Six days prior to the Passover festival of 33 C.E., Jesus came to Bethany, just two miles (c. 3 kilometers) from Jerusalem, on the eastern side of the Mount of Olives. The next day, Nisan 9, as Jehovah’s anointed King, he approached the capital city, mounted on the colt of an ass, in fulfillment of the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9. (Matt. 21:1-9) Coming down the Mount of Olives, he paused to view the city and wept over it, graphically foretelling the coming siege and desolation it would undergo. (Luke 19:37-44) Upon his entering the city, likely through a gate in the eastern wall, the whole city was “set in commotion,” for news would spread quickly throughout the relatively small area.—Matt. 21:10.
During the remaining time, in which he spent the days in Jerusalem and the nights in Bethany (Luke 21:37, 38), Jesus cleansed the temple area of commercialists (Matt. 21:12, 13), as he had done some three years earlier. (John 2:13-16) On Nisan 11 he took four of his disciples to the Mount of Olives, from which the city and its temple could be viewed, and gave his great prophecy regarding Jerusalem’s coming destruction and the “conclusion of the system of things,” as well as of his second presence. (Matthew 24; Mark 13; Luke 21) During Nisan 13 his disciples arranged for the Passover meal in an upper room in Jerusalem where, that evening (the start of Nisan 14), Jesus celebrated the meal with them. After his discussion with them, they left the city, crossed the “winter torrent of Kidron,” and climbed the slopes of the Mount of Olives to the garden called Gethsemane. (Matt. 26:36; Luke 22:39; John 18:1, 2) Gethsemane means “an oil press,” and olive trees of great age are yet to be found on the slope. But the exact location of the garden is today a matter of conjecture.—See GETHSEMANE.
Arrested that night, Jesus was led back into Jerusalem to priests Annas and Caiaphas and to the Sanhedrim hall for trial. (Matt. 26:57–27:1; John 18:13-27) From there, at dawn, he was taken to Pilate, perhaps at the Antonia fortress N of the temple. (Matt. 27:2; Mark 15:1) Then to Herod Antipas, likely at Herod’s palace in the NW corner of the city. (Luke 23:6, 7) Finally, he was returned to Pilate for final judgment at “the Stone Pavement,” called “Gabbatha” in Hebrew. (Luke 23:11; John 19:13) A large pavement discovered in the area of the Castle of Antonia is thought by many to be the site of Pilate’s pronouncement of judgment.
Golgotha, meaning “Skull Place,” was the site of Jesus’ impalement. (Matt. 27:33-35; Luke 23:33) Though it obviously lay outside the city walls, probably toward the N and hence not far from the fortress of Antonia, the site cannot be identified with certainty. (See GOLGOTHA.) The same is true of the site of Jesus’ burial. Gordon’s Garden Tomb, to the N of the present-day Damascus Gate, at least gives an idea of a typical rich man’s tomb in the early centuries of the Common Era, hollowed out of the rock, a large rolling stone in its prepared channel or groove being used to seal the entrance.
The “potter’s field to bury strangers,” purchased with the bribe money Judas threw back to the priests (Matt. 27:5-7), is traditionally identified with a site on the S side of the Hinnom Valley near its junction with the Kidron. Many tombs are found in this area.—See AKELDAMA.
During the apostolic period
Following his resurrection, Jesus gave orders to his disciples not to leave Jerusalem at that time. (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4) This was to be the starting point for preaching repentance for forgiveness of sins on the basis of Christ’s name. (Luke 24:46-48) Ten days after his ascension to heaven, the disciples, gathered together in an upper room, received the anointing by holy spirit. (Acts 1:13, 14; 2:1-4) Jerusalem was crowded with Jews and proselytes from all parts of the Roman Empire, in attendance at the festival of Pentecost. The witnessing done by the spirit-filled Christians resulted in thousands becoming baptized disciples. In a city less than a square mile (less than 260 hectares) in area, and with thousands bearing witness to their faith, it is no wonder the angry religious leaders cried: “Look! you have filled Jerusalem with your teaching.” (Acts 5:28) Miracles performed added power to the testimony, as, for example, the healing of the lame beggar at the “temple door that was called Beautiful,” likely the E gate of the court of women.—Acts 3:2, 6, 7.
Even after the witnessing began to spread out from Jerusalem to “Samaria and to the most distant part of the earth” (Acts 1:8), Jerusalem continued to be the location of the governing body of the Christian congregation. Persecution early caused ‘all except the apostles to be scattered throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria.’ (Acts 8:1; compare Galatians 1:17-19; 2:1-9.) From Jerusalem, certain apostles and disciples were sent out to aid new groups of believers, as at Samaria. (Acts 8:14; 11:19-22, 27) Saul of Tarsus (Paul) soon found it advisable to cut short his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian due to murder plots (Acts 9:26-30), but there were periods of calm. (Acts 9:31) Here Peter reported to the Christian assembly about God’s acceptance of Gentile believers and here, too, the issue of circumcision and related matters were settled.—Acts 11:1-4, 18; 15:1, 2, 22-29; Gal. 2:1, 2.
Jesus had called Jerusalem “the killer of the prophets and stoner of those sent forth to her.” (Matt. 23:37; compare verses 34-36.) Though many of her citizens showed faith in God’s Son, the city as a whole continued to follow the pattern of the past. For this, ‘her house was abandoned to her.’ (Matt. 23:38) In 66 C.E. a Jewish revolt brought Roman forces under Cestius Gallus to the city, surrounding it and making a thrust right up to the temple walls. (Compare Luke 21:20.) Suddenly Cestius Gallus withdrew for no apparent reason. This allowed Christians to put into action Jesus’ instructions: “Then let those in Judea begin fleeing to the mountains, and let those in the midst of [Jerusalem] withdraw, and let those in the country places not enter into her.” (Luke 21:20-22) Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History (III, 5:3), basing his information on the second-century writings of Hegesippus, states that the Christians left Jerusalem and fled to the vicinity of Pella in the mountainous region of Gilead.
Jerusalem’s relief as a result of the Roman withdrawal was short-lived, as it had been when the Babylonians temporarily withdrew to deal with the Egyptians. Under General Titus the Roman forces returned in increased numbers and laid siege to the city, now crowded with Passover celebrants. Siege banks were thrown up by the Romans and a continuous wall or fence was erected around the entire city to prevent escape by day or night. This, too, fulfilled Jesus’ prophecy. (Luke 19:43) Within the city rival factions quarreled and fought, much of the food supply was destroyed, and those caught attempting to leave the city were slain as traitors. Josephus, the source of this information, relates that in time the famine became so grave that the people were reduced to eating wisps of hay and leather, even their own children. (Compare Lamentations 2:11, 12, 19, 20; Deuteronomy 28:56, 57.) Titus’ offers of peace were consistently rejected by the stubborn city leaders.
Eventually the walls were systematically breached by the Romans, and their troops invaded the city. Despite orders to the contrary, the temple was burned and gutted. According to Josephus, this took place on the anniversary of Nebuchadnezzar’s destruction of the first temple centuries earlier. His account also states that the “repository of the archives” housing the genealogical records of tribal and family descent and inheritance rights were put to the fire. Thus, the legal means for establishing the lineage of members of the Messianic tribe of Judah and the priestly tribe of Levi came to an end.
In just four months and twenty-five days, from April 11 to September 7, 70 C.E., the conquest had been effected. Thus, the tribulation, though intense, was remarkably short. The unreasoning attitude and actions of the Jews within the city doubtless contributed to this shortness. Though Josephus puts the number of dead at 1,100,000, there were survivors. (Compare Matthew 24:22.) Ninety-seven thousand captives were taken, many of whom were sold into slavery to Egypt and other lands. This, too, fulfilled divine prophecy.—Deut. 28:68.
The entire city was demolished, only the towers of Herod’s palace and a portion of the western wall left standing as evidence to later generations of the defensive strength that had availed nothing. Josephus remarks that, apart from these remnants, “there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited.” (Wars of the Jews, Book VII, chap. I, par. 1.) A relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome depicts Roman soldiers carrying off sacred vessels of the ruined temple.—Compare Matthew 24:2.
LATER PERIODS
Jerusalem remained virtually desolate until about 130 C.E., when Emperor Hadrian ordered the building of a new city, named Aelia Capitolina. This provoked a Jewish revolt by Bar Kokba (132-135 C.E.), which succeeded for a time, but was then crushed. Jews were not allowed in the Roman-built city for nearly two centuries. In the fourth century, Constantine the Great’s mother Helene visited Jerusalem and began the identification of the many so-called “holy” sites and shrines. Later the Moslems captured the city, and Caliph Omar had a mosque built on the earlier temple site. It was replaced in the eleventh century by the present “Dome of the Rock” edifice. Within it is a patch of bare rock, viewed as especially holy by the Moslems, who claim it is the spot from which Mohammed ascended to heaven. Others believe it is associated with the temples built by Solomon, Zerubbabel and Herod.
For further information concerning geographical locations related to Jerusalem, see such articles as: EN-ROGEL; GIHON; GOAH; KIDRON, TORRENT VALLEY OF; MAKTESH; OLIVES, MOUNT OF; OPHEL; TEMPLE; and ZION.
THE CITY’S SIGNIFICANCE
Jerusalem was far more than the capital of an earthly nation. It was the only city in all the earth upon which Jehovah God placed his Name. (1 Ki. 11:36) After the ark of the covenant, symbolic of God’s presence, was transferred there, and even more so when the temple sanctuary or house of God was constructed there, Jerusalem became Jehovah’s figurative ‘residence,’ his “resting place.” (Ps. 78:68, 69; 132:13, 14; 135:21; compare 2 Samuel 7:1-7, 12, 13.) Because the kings of the Davidic line were God’s anointed, sitting upon “Jehovah’s throne” (1 Chron. 29:23; Ps. 122:3-5), Jerusalem itself was also called “the throne of Jehovah,” and those tribes or nations turning to it in recognition of God’s sovereignty were, in effect, being congregated to the Name of Jehovah. (Jer. 3:17; Ps. 122:1-4; Isa. 27:13; compare 33:17, 20-22) Those hostile to or fighting against Jerusalem were, in actuality, opposing the expression of God’s sovereignty. This was certain to occur, in view of the prophetic statement at Genesis 3:15.
Jerusalem therefore represented the seat of the divinely constituted government or typical kingdom of God. From it went forth God’s law, his word and his blessing. (Mic. 4:2; Ps. 128:5) Those working for Jerusalem’s peace and its good were therefore working for the success of God’s righteous purpose, the prospering of his will. (Ps. 122:6-9) Though situated among Judah’s mountains and doubtless of impressive appearance, Jerusalem’s true loftiness and beauty came from the way in which Jehovah God had honored and glorified it, that it might serve as a “crown of beauty” for him.—Ps. 48:1-3, 11-14; 50:2; Isa. 62:1-7.
Since Jehovah’s praise and his will are effected primarily by his intelligent creatures, it was not the buildings forming the city that determined his continued use of the city but the people in it, rulers and ruled, priests and people. (Ps. 102:18-22; Isa. 26:1, 2) While these were faithful, honoring Jehovah’s name by their words and life course, he blessed and defended Jerusalem. (Ps. 125:1, 2; Isa. 31:4, 5) Jehovah’s disfavor soon came upon the people and their kings due to the apostate course the majority followed. For this reason Jehovah declared his purpose to reject the city that had borne his name. (2 Ki. 21:12-15; 23:27) He would remove “support and stay” from the city, resulting in its becoming filled with tyranny, with juvenile delinquency, with disrespect for men in honorable positions; Jerusalem would suffer abasement and severe humiliation. (Isa. 3:1-8, 16-26) While Jehovah God restored the city seventy years after permitting its destruction by Babylon, making it again beautiful as the joyful center of true worship in the earth (Isa. 52:1-9; 65:17-19), the people and their leaders reverted to their apostate course once more.
Jehovah preserved the city until the sending of his Son to earth. It had to be there for the Messianic prophecies to be fulfilled. (Isa. 28:16; 52:7; Zech. 9:9) Israel’s apostate course was climaxed by the impalement of the Messiah, Jesus Christ. (Compare Matthew 21:33-41.) Taking place as it did at Jerusalem, instigated by the nation’s leaders with popular support, this made certain God’s complete and irreversible rejection of the city as representing Him and bearing His Name. (Compare Matthew 16:21; Luke 13:33-35.) Neither Jesus nor his apostles foretold any restoration by God of earthly Jerusalem to come after its divinely decreed destruction, which occurred in 70 C.E.
Yet the name Jerusalem continued to be used as symbolic of something greater than the earthly city. The apostle Paul, by divine inspiration, revealed that there is a “Jerusalem above,” “heavenly Jerusalem,” which is the “city of the living God.” He speaks of it as the “mother” of anointed Christians. (Gal. 4:25, 26; Heb. 12:22) This places the heavenly Jerusalem in the position of a wife to Jehovah God the great Father and Life-giver. When earthly Jerusalem was used as the chief city of God’s chosen nation, it, too, was spoken of as a woman, married to God, being tied to him by holy bonds in a covenant relationship. (Isa. 51:17, 21, 22; 54:1, 5; 60:1, 14) As the capital, it thus stood for, was representative of, the entire congregation of God’s human servants. “Heavenly Jerusalem” must therefore represent the entire congregation of Jehovah’s spirit servants, angelic creatures.—Compare Revelation 4:1-4; 5:11.
New Jerusalem
In the inspired Revelation, the apostle John records information concerning the “new Jerusalem.” (Rev. 3:12) This “new Jerusalem” is not depicted as the wife of God and mother of Christians, but as the “bride” of Christ. (Rev. 21:2, 9-27) Other apostolic writings apply the same figure to the Christian congregation of anointed ones. (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:21-32) In Revelation chapter 14 the “Lamb” Christ Jesus is depicted as standing on Mount Zion, a name also associated with Jerusalem (compare 1 Peter 2:6), and with him are 144,000 having his name and the name of his Father written on their foreheads.—Rev. 14:1-5; see NEW JERUSALEM.
Unfaithful Jerusalem
Since much that is said concerning Jerusalem in the Scriptures is in condemnation of her, it is clear that only when faithful did Jerusalem symbolize or prefigure the true Christian congregation, the “Israel of God.” (Gal. 6:16) When unfaithful, it was pictured as a prostitute and an adulterous woman; it became like the pagan Amorites and Hittites that once controlled the city. (Ezek. 16:3, 15, 30-42) As such it could only represent apostates, those following a ‘prostitute’ course of infidelity to the God whose name they claim to bear.—Jas. 4:4.
It can thus be seen that “Jerusalem” is used in a multiple sense and the context must in each case be considered to gain correct understanding.—See APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS.
[Map on page 909]
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Main Geographical Features In and Around JERUSALEM
MOUNT SCOPUS
MOUNT MORIAH
MOUNT OF OLIVES
MOUNT ZION
WESTERN HILL
Valley of Hinnom
Cross Valley
Tyropean Valley
Torrent Valley of Kidron
Gihon
En-rogel
[Map on page 913]
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JERUSALEM DURING THE MINISTRY OF JESUS AND HIS APOSTLES
Garden Tomb (?)
Golgotha (?)
(This outer north wall was started by Herod Agrippa I, who ruled c. 41-44 C.E.)
Pool of Bethzatha
Castle of Antonia
Temple
Sanhedrin (?)
Palace of Herod
TYROPEAN VALLEY
Pool of Siloam
VALLEY OF HINNOM OR GEHENNA
Akeldama(?)
KIDRON VALLEY
Solomon’s Colonnade
Gethsemane (?)
MOUNT OF OLIVES
[Picture on page 910]
Pictured here is what is called David’s Tower, on the W side of Jerusalem. Some authorities believe that the Tower dates back to the days of King Herod
[Picture on page 914]
Roman coin commemorating the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. Judaea Capta (“Captive Judea”). SC (“Senatus Consultu,” meaning “By a Decree of the Senate”).