ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES OF NOTABLE FORTIFICATIONS

Following up the building operations of his father David, King Solomon was outstanding for his construction works. Besides building the magnificent temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem, he strengthened Jerusalem’s walls and built extensive fortifications at Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer. Archaeologists were guided in their excavation of these fortifications by the Bible’s statement at 1 Kings 9:15: “Now this is the account of those conscripted for forced labor that King Solomon levied to build the house of Jehovah and his own house and the Mound and the wall of Jerusalem and Hazor and Megiddo and Gezer.” They found that the gates of these three last-named cities were all built to a single unique plan, each being fifty-six feet (17 meters) wide, with an entrance flanked on both sides by square towers and leading into a vestibule sixty-six feet (20 meters) long, with three chambers on each side. They were somewhat similar to the description of the gates of Ezekiel’s visionary temple. (Ezek. 40:5-16) Solomon’s son Rehoboam is also credited with much building. This included, besides reinforcing the fortified places, the storage of food supplies in them.—2 Chron. 11:5-10.

Immediately above casemate walls built by Solomon at Megiddo and Hazor massive walls had been constructed, possibly built by Ahab. These were more thickly and strongly built, doubtless because of the heavy Assyrian battering rams in use during that later period. Other kings of Israel and Judah noted for their construction works are Jeroboam, who rebuilt Shechem and Penuel; Baasha, who began to build Ramah “to allow no one to go out or come in to Asa the king of Judah” (1 Ki. 15:17); Asa, who used stones and timbers from Ramah in building operations in Geba and Mizpah; Omri the builder of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom; Uzziah (Azariah) the rebuilder of Elath (Eloth) and builder of towers in the wilderness; and Jotham, who built fortified places and towers.—1 Ki. 12:25; 15:22, 23; 16:23, 24; 2 Ki. 14:21, 22; 2 Chron. 26:1, 2, 9, 10; 27:1, 4.

Of Uzziah it is said: “He made in Jerusalem engines of war, the invention of engineers, that they might come to be upon the towers and upon the corners, to shoot arrows and great stones.” (2 Chron. 26:15) Just what these engines of war were is not understood. Archaeologists have discovered sculptured reliefs of Sennacherib’s assault on the city of Lachish depicting a defensive innovation that some would attribute to Uzziah. These reliefs show that upon the towers and on the corners of the walls of Lachish wooden structures holding round shields were built above the crenelated parapets. This was a great advantage for the defenders of a city in that they now could stand to full height, with both hands free to shoot arrows and to sling and throw stones at the besiegers, their bodies being much better protected than previously, when they had to expose themselves to shoot, and then dodge behind the merlons of the crenelated walls.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES OF AQUEDUCTS

The builders of the Megiddo fortifications used simple, yet ingenious way to get water into the city. The source of water for the city was a well in a natural cave at the western foot of the mound on which Megiddo was built. To get water into the city they sent a vertical shaft ninety-eight feet (30 meters) deep, seventy-two feet (22 meters) of this distance through solid rock, which brought them to the level of the well. From this level they cut a horizontal tunnel with a slight gradient for a distance of 220 feet (67 meters) to the well. The slight slope from the well to the bottom of the shaft allowed the water to flow into the city by gravity. The well was sealed from the outside by a thick wall.

An amazing construction requiring superb engineering skill was accomplished by Hezekiah when he sealed up the course of the water flowing from Gihon and cut a channel or conduit about 1,750 feet (1,200 cubits or 533 meters) to bring water into Jerusalem, thereby enabling it to withstand a long siege.—2 Chron. 32:30.

Often cisterns, both public and individual, were built inside the city so as to have a water supply during times of siege. On the monument (now located in the Louvre of Paris) erected at Dibon, in Moab, by Mesha the king of Moab, we find the inscription “I also built its gates and I built its towers and I built the king’s house, and I made both of its reservoirs for water inside the town. And there was no cistern inside the town even at the acropolis, so I said to all the people, ‘Let each of you make a cistern for himself in his house.’”

SYMBOLIC USES

Since the tower or citadel of the fortified city was its last stronghold and the towers in the wilderness were the safest places of refuge for miles around, we can see the appropriateness of Proverbs 18:10: “The name of Jehovah is a strong tower. Into it the righteous runs and is given protection.” Also significant are the expressions of David: “Jehovah is my crag and my stronghold and the Provider of escape for me.” (2 Sam. 22:2) “Become to me a rock fortress into which to enter constantly. You must command to save me, for you are my crag and my stronghold.” (Ps. 71:3) This would be especially meaningful to Jews who would look up at the great stronghold of Jerusalem situated on an elevation higher than nearly any other major capital city in human history, with its mighty walls of defense. It also gives meaning to God’s words through the prophet Zechariah, when Jehovah speaks of himself as “a wall of fire all around” Jerusalem. It gives his people encouraging assurance that, while walls of stone can be broken down, Jehovah himself is really the defense of his servants.—Ps. 48:11-13; Zech. 2:4, 5; see GATE, GATEWAY.

FORTUNATUS

(For·tu·naʹtus) [fortunate].

One of the mature members of the congregation in Corinth who, together with Stephanas and Achaicus, visited Paul at Ephesus. (1 Cor. 16:8, 17, 18) From these men Paul may have learned of the disturbing conditions about which he wrote, and they were possibly the ones who delivered Paul’s first canonical letter to the Corinthians.—1 Cor. 1:11; 5:1; 11:18.

FORUM

(foʹrum).

The Roman forum was a large, open and often rectangular place, corresponding to the Greek a·go·raʹ (marketplace). Although forums were usually paved, they were not thoroughfares. Originally just an open place where people congregated on market days and for public events, the forum later was surrounded by public buildings, shops, colonnades and temples, thus becoming a center of legal, political and commercial business. At first there was only one forum in each city, and this not only served as a place for carrying out business transactions, but was also the scene for athletic games, theatrical performances and similar events. However, as a result a of the growth of the city of Rome and its commerce, other judicial and mercantile forums came into existence, including separate fish, vegetable, wine, bread and cattle markets. But this was not generally so in other Roman cities. In planning new cities the forum was situated in the center and the two main streets crossed one another near the forum but not through it. The word “forum” often appears as part of the name of Roman market towns, as in Appii Forum.

In the first century C.E. forums could be found in all Graeco-Roman cities. At Philippi, Paul and Silas were dragged before the magistrates in the marketplace or forum and charged with disturbing the city and publishing unlawful customs. (Acts 16:19-21; compare NW, 1950 ed., ftn.) Later, at Athens, Paul