within the sanctuary itself the priest laid the incense on the golden altar, and the cloud of ‘ordours’ rose up before the Lord.”—P. 138.

HOUSE

The word “house” as used in the Bible may denote, among other things, (1) a household or all the offspring of one man (Gen. 12:1; 17:13, 23; Obad. 1:17, 18; Mic. 1:5); (2) a dwelling house (Gen. 19:2-4); (3) a jail or, figuratively, a country of enslavement (Gen. 40:4, 14; Ex. 13:3); (4) a dweling place of animals and birds (Job. 39:6; Ps. 104:17); (5) a spider’s web (Job 8:14); (6) a royal residence or palace (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:2); (7) a priestly line (1 Sam. 2:35); (8) a royal dynasty (1 Sam. 25:28; 2 Sam. 7:11); (9) Jehovah’s tabernacle or temple, both literal and spiritual (Ex. 23:19; 34:26; 1 Ki. 6:1; 1 Pet. 2:5); (10) the dwelling place of Jehovah, heaven itself (John 14:2); (11) the sanctuary of a false god (Judg. 9:27; 1 Sam. 5:2; 1 Ki. 16:32; 2 Ki. 5:18); (12) the corruptible physical body of humans (Eccl. 12:3; 2 Cor. 5:1-4); (13) the incorruptible spiritual body (2 Cor. 5:1); (14) the common grave (Job 17:13; Eccl. 12:5); (15) an association of workers engaged in the same profession (1 Chron. 4:21), and (16) a building for housing official records of state.—Ezra 6:1.

A form of the Hebrew word for house, ba·yithʹ, often constitutes part of a proper name, as in Bethel (house of God) and Bethlehem (house of bread).

BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Anciently, as today, different types of dwellings existed. Construction techniques varied according to the time period, the economic circumstances of the builder and the available materials. The builders of Babel, for instance, used brick instead of stone, and “bitumen served as mortar for them.”—Gen. 11:3.

Many of the Israelites began dwelling in the houses of the dispossessed Canaanites and likely followed similar construction methods for years afterward. (Deut. 6:10, 11) Apparently stone houses were preferred (Isa. 9:10; Amos 5:11), as these were more substantial and safer from intruders than those built of mud brick. Robbers could readily gain access to mud houses by simply digging through a wall. (Compare Job 24:16.) However, in the lowlands, where little good-quality limestone and sandstone were available, sun-dried or, sometimes, kiln-baked mud bricks were used for the walls of dwellings. Sycamore, juniper and, particularly in the better houses, cedar beams and rafters were used.—Song of Sol. 1:17; Isa. 9:10.

Archaeologists have excavated the ruins of several kinds of ancient Palestinian dwellings, including houses consisting of (1) a single room, (2) two rooms, (3) a single room on one side of a courtyard, (4) several rooms on one side of a courtyard, (5) a courtyard with rooms on two adjoining sides, (6) a courtyard with rooms on two opposite sides, (7) a courtyard with rooms on three sides and (8) a central courtyard with rooms on four sides. Usually there was an oven in the courtyard and sometimes also a well or cistern. (2 Sam. 17:18) The ruins of houses that have been found indicate considerable variation in size. One was only sixteen feet (4.9 meters) square, whereas another measured 104 by 97 feet (31.7 by 29.6 meters). Rooms often were from twelve to fifteen feet (3.7 to 4.6 meters) square.

Some houses were built atop wide city walls. (Josh. 2:15) But preferably they were constructed on a rockmass (Matt. 7:24), and generally mud-brick work was not started until two or three rows of stone had first been laid. When a house could not be erected on a rock-mass, often a solid foundation was laid, its depth below ground being equivalent to the height of the stone wall above ground. Some foundations were built with large uncut stones, and the cracks were filled with small rocks; others were constructed of hewn stones. The ruins of one mud-brick house excavated by archaeologists had stone work to a height of about two feet (.6 meter); in another the stone construction rose to a height of about three feet (.9 meter). The walls of some houses were over three feet (.9 meter) thick. Often a kind of whitewash was applied to the exterior walls (Ezek. 13:11, 15), and mud-brick walls on the street side were sometimes faced with pebbles to protect their surface.

Building stones were aligned and bonded by carefully smoothed and fitted cornerstones. (Compare Psalm 118:22; Isaiah 28:16.) A mixture of clay and straw commonly served as mortar. At times this mixture included lime, ashes, pulverized pottery fragments, or pounded shells or limestone. It was applied to the bricks or stones to hold them together, and was also used as a plaster for interior walls. (Lev. 14:41, 42) In some cases, however, stones were so accurately cut that mortar was not needed.

Floors

Floors, including those of the courtyard, consisted of beaten earth or were paved with stone, brick, or lime plaster. A depression in the floor commonly served as a fireplace, but braziers were used to heat the finer homes. (Jer. 36:22, 23) Smoke escaped through a hole in the roof. (Hos. 13:3) The rooms of palatial houses perhaps had wooden floors, like the temple.—1 Ki. 6:15.

Windows

Rectangular openings in the walls served as windows. At least some of these were large enough for a man to pass through. (Josh. 2:15; 1 Sam. 19:12; Acts 20:9) Particularly the windows facing the street were equipped with lattices.—Judg. 5:28; Prov. 7:6.

Doors

Doors were commonly made of wood and turned on pivots (Prov. 26:14) fitted into sockets in the wooden or stone lintel and threshold. Two upright wooden posts served as jambs. (Ex. 12:22, 23) Although some houses had two entranceways, usually only one door led from the street into the courtyard, from where access could be gained to all the rooms of the house.

Interior decorations and furniture

In luxurious homes the walls of the rooms were paneled with cedar or other valuable woods and smeared with vermilion. (Jer. 22:14; Hag. 1:4) The “ivory houses” of some wealthy ones evidently had rooms paneled with wood inlaid with ivory. (1 Ki. 22:39; Amos 3:15) Aside from the various cooking utensils, vessels, baskets and other household items, the furnishings of the home might include beds or divans, chairs, stools, tables and lampstands. (Compare 2 Samuel 4:11; 2 Kings 4:10; Psalm 41:3; Matthew 5:15.) The furniture in the homes of some wealthy persons was beautified with inlaid work of ivory, gold and silver.—Compare Esther 1:6; Amos 3:12; 6:4.

Roof and upper chamber

Most roofs were flat, and the Law covenant required that Israelite roofs be surrounded by a parapet to prevent accidents. (Deut. 22:8) A slight slope given to the roof permitted the rain to run off. It rested on strong wooden beams laid from wall to wall. Smaller wooden rafters were placed across these beams and, in turn, covered with branches, reeds, and the like. Next came a layer of earth several inches thick that was coated with a thick plaster of clay or of clay and lime. An opening could easily be dug through such an earthen roof, as was done by men who were endeavoring to get a paralytic into Jesus’ presence so that he might be healed. (Mark 2:4) The beams of the roof often were supported by a row of upright wooden posts resting on stone bases. Grass could sprout from these roofs (Ps. 129:6), and it was difficult to keep them from leaking. (Prov. 19:13; 27:15; Eccl. 10:18) Probably before the rainy season began