times. After harvesting, this inedible membrane covering of the valuable grain was useless and hence was an appropriate symbol of something light, worthless and undesirable, something to be separated from the good and disposed of.

First, the threshing operation broke the chaff loose from the kernel. Then by winnowing, the light chaffy part was carried away like dust in the wind. (See WINNOWING.) This well illustrates how Jehovah God both removes the apostates from among his people and disposes of wicked persons and opposing nations. (Job 21:18; Ps. 1:4; 35:5; Isa. 17:13; 29:5; 41:15; Hos. 13:3) God’s kingdom will crush its enemies into such small particles that they will be easily blown away like the chaff.—Dan. 2:35.

The worthless chaff was often gathered and burned to prevent it from blowing back and contaminating the piles of grain. Similarly, John the Baptist foretold the coming burning destruction of the wicked false religionists—the Thresher, Jesus Christ, will gather in the wheat, “but the chaff he will burn up with fire that cannot be put out.”—Matt. 3:7-12; Luke 3:17; see THRESHING.

CHAINS

See BOND.

CHALCEDONY

(chal·cedʹo·ny).

The modern stone bearing this name is a transparent or translucent cryptocrystalline variety of quartz used for ornaments and gems. It is not quite as hard as pure quartz and it occurs in masses in the cavities of volcanic rocks. The common kind of chalcedony is partially transparent and figured with milky-white swirls and spots. It appears in many colors, such as white, gray, yellow, blue and brown.

Chalcedony was a stone commonly used for engraved gems in ancient times. It was named after an old Greek city called Chalcedon (in Asia Minor), which once was a source of the mineral. The only Biblical text referring to this stone states that the third foundation of New Jerusalem’s wall was chalcedony.—Rev. 21:2, 19; see JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

CHALDEA

(Chal·deʹa), Chaldean (Chal·deʹan).

Originally the land and people occupying the southern portion of the Babylonian alluvial plain, that rich delta area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. At one time these rivers may have emptied into the Persian Gulf separately, the cities of Eridu and Ur being seaports. But over the years the river silts gradually filled in the bay, pushed the coastline 130 miles (209.2 kilometers) to the SE, and allowed the Tigris and Euphrates to join together before emptying into the sea. In early times the region’s most important city was Ur, the hometown of Abraham, from which he and his family departed at God’s command before 1943 B.C.E. (Gen. 11:28, 31; 15:7; Neh. 9:7; Acts 7:2-4) In the last quarter of the seventeenth century B.C.E. Satan the Devil caused Chaldean raiders to inflict heavy losses on faithful Job.—Job 1:17.

As the influence of the Chaldeans spread northward, the whole territory of Babylonia became known as “the land of the Chaldeans.” Isalah in his prophecies anticipated this Chaldean rise to power and their subsequent fall. (Isa. 13:19; 23:13; 47:1, 5; 48:14, 20) Particularly was this domination manifest during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E., when Nabopolassar a native of Chaldea, and his successors, Nebuchadnezzar II, Evil-merodach, Neriglissar, Labashi—Marduk Nabonidus and Belshazzar, ruled the third world empire, Babylon. (2 Ki. 24:1, 2; 2 Chron. 36:17; Ezra 5:12; Jer. 21:4, 9; 25:12; 32:4; 43:3; 50:1; Ezek. 1:3; Hab. 1:6) That dynasty came to its end when “Belshazzar the Chaldean king was killed.” (Dan. 5:30) Later Darius the Mede was “king over the kingdom of the Chaldeans.”—Dan. 9:1.

From early times the Chaldeans were noted for their knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. In the days of Daniel a special cult of prognosticators who considered themselves skilled in the so-called “science” of divination were called “Chaldeans.”—Dan. 2:2, 5, 10; 4:7; 5:7, 11.

CHALK

The only occurrence of the Hebrew word seʹredh in the Bible is at Isaiah 44:13, and it has reference to the red chalk used by wood craftsmen for marking purposes.

CHALKSTONE

Outcroppings of this very soft, easily powdered rock are found in various parts of Palestine. Because it is worthless as a building stone, and can be so readily crumbled and pulverized, the prophet Isaiah used it in an effective simile to show what must be done to the idolatrous altars of Israel if forgiveness was to be attained.—Isa. 27:9.

CHAMELEON

[Heb., tin·sheʹmeth].

The name of this reptile is included among the “swarming creatures” that were “unclean” under the Mosaic law. (Lev. 11:29, 30) The name is considered to have been derived from a root word meaning “to pant” or “to blow.” Koehler-Baumgartner’s Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (p. 1035), by comparison with Arabic, suggests the meaning of “snorter.” While identification is uncertain, the name may apply to the chameleon. The common Chamæleon vulgaris is frequently found in Egypt and Palestine.

The chameleon is a slow-moving, tree-dwelling lizard noted for its color-changing ability, which is due to the expansion and contraction of pigment-bearing cells in the skin, controlled by the nervous system. Color response is primarily determined by temperature and light intensity

At Leviticus 11:18 the same name is applied to the swan as among “unclean” fowl.

CHAMOIS

[Heb., zeʹmer].

A small goatlike antelope characterized by its hook-tipped horns and noted for its agility and surefootedness at dizzying heights. The grown male may measure thirty-two inches (.8 meter) at the shoulder, and may weigh about sixty-five pounds (29.5 kilograms). The summer coat of the chamois is a tawny color that gets darker with the advent of the winter season. The chamois is listed among the animals suitable for food according to the requirements of the Law.—Deut. 14:5.

There is uncertainty as to the animal meant by the Hebrew word zeʹmer, variously rendered “chamois” (AV, AS, ER, NW, Yg), “mountain goat” (La), “mountain sheep” (AT, JB, Mo, Ro), “antelope” (Le), and simply transliterated as “zemer.” (Kx) The Hebrew root from which the word zeʹmer is thought to be derived suggests a bouncing, leaping animal, hence likely a kind of gazelle. Authorities who maintain that the chamois was never found in Palestine consider the rendering of zeʹmer as “chamois” to be in error. However, it may be noted that local varieties of this animal are to be found in the Carpathian and Caucasian Mountains, thus allowing for the possibility that at one time a variety of the chamois may have existed in the ranges of Lebanon.

CHARCOAL

A black, brittle and porous form of carbon, usually the residue of partially burned wood. In ancient times it was made by covering a pile of wood with earth, and burning it slowly for several days with only a sufficient amount of air to burn off the gases, leaving behind a relatively pure form of carbon. It was a time-consuming process requiring careful supervision, but charcoal was a favored fuel when intense, sustained heat without smoke was desired. There is no evidence that natural mineral coal was used in ancient Palestine. Diggings in the rubble of old Jericho have revealed charred timbers and pieces of charcoal—evidence of the fiery holocaust that once destroyed that city.—Josh. 6:24.

Charcoal, in an open fire or in a brazier, was used to warm oneself in cold weather. (Isa. 47:14; Jer. 36:22; John 18:18) Its even heat with an absence