to a subsequent military action cannot be said. Josephus, Jewish historian of the first century C.E. places the conquest of Egypt sometime after Nebuchadnezzar’s twenty-third year (602/601 B.C.E.). (Antiquities of the Jews, Book X, chap. IX, par. 7) Whether Pharaoh Hophra, mentioned at Jeremiah 44:30, was on the Egyptian throne at the time of the conquest or whether he had earlier been slain by enemies within the country, as Herodotus claims (Book II, sec. 161), is not certain. At any rate, Nebuchadnezzar received Egypt’s wealth as his pay for military service rendered in Jehovah’s execution of judgment against Tyre, the opposer of God’s people.—Ezek. 29:18-20; 30:10-12.

At Ezekiel 29:1-16 a desolation of Egypt is foretold, due to last forty years. This may have come after Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Egypt. While some commentaries refer to the reign of Amasis (Ahmose) II, the successor of Hophra, as exceedingly prosperous during more than forty years, they do so primarily on the testimony of Herodotus, who visited Egypt over a hundred years later. But as the Encyclopœdia Britannica (1959, Vol. 8, p. 62) comments on Herodotus’ history of this period (the “Saitic Period”): “. . . his statements prove not entirely reliable when they can be checked by the scanty native evidence.” The Bible commentary of F. C. Cook, after noting that Herodotus even fails to mention Nebuchadnezzar’s attack on Egypt, says: “It is notorious that Herodotus, while he faithfully recorded all that he heard and saw in Egypt, was indebted for his information on past history to the Egyptian priests, whose tales he adopted with blind credulity. . . . The whole story [by Herodotus] of Apries [Hophra] and Amasis is mixed with so much that is inconsistent and legendary that we may very well hesitate to adopt it as authentic history. It is by no means strange that the priests should endeavour to disguise the national dishonour of having been subjected to a foreign yoke.” Hence, while secular history provides no clear evidence of the prophecy’s fulfillment, we may be confident of the accuracy of the Bible record.

Under Persian domination

Egypt later supported Babylon against the rising power of Medo-Persia. But by 525 B.C.E., the land was subjugated by Cambyses, son of Cyrus the Great, thereby coming under Persian imperial rule. (Isa. 43:3) While many Jews doubtless left Egypt to return to their homeland (Isa. 11:11-16; Hos. 11:11; Zech. 10:10, 11), others remained in Egypt. Thus, there was a Jewish colony in Elephantine (Egyptian Yeb), an island in the Nile near Aswan, some 430 miles (c. 692 kilometers) due S of Cairo. A valuable find of papyri reveals conditions prevailing there during the fifth century B.C.E., about the time when Ezra and Nehemiah were active in Jerusalem. These documents, in Aramaic, contain the name of Sanballat of Samaria (Neh. 4:1, 2) and of priest Johanan. (Neh. 12:22) Of interest is an official order issued during the reign of Darius II (c. 423-404 B.C.E.) that the “festival of unfermented cakes” (Ex. 12:17; 13:3, 6, 7) be celebrated by the colony. Also notable is the frequent use of the name Yahu, a form of the name Jehovah (or Yahweh; compare Isaiah 19:18), although there is considerable evidence, too, of definite infiltration of pagan worship.

Under Greek and Roman rule

Egypt continued under Persian rule until Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 B.C.E., supposedly ‘liberating’ Egypt from the Persian yoke but ending for all time the rule by native pharaohs. Mighty Egypt had indeed become a “lowly kingdom.”—Ezek. 29:14, 15.

During Alexander’s reign the city of Alexandria was founded and after his death the country was ruled by the Ptolemies. In 312 B.C.E., Ptolemy I captured Jerusalem, and Judah became a province of Ptolemaic Egypt until 198 B.C.E. Then, in the long struggle with the Seleucid Empire in Syria, Egypt finally lost control of Palestine when Syrian King Antiochus III defeated the army of Ptolemy V. Thereafter Egypt gradually came more and more under the influence of Rome. In 31 B.C.E., in the decisive battle of Actium, Cleopatra deserted the fleet of her Roman lover Antony, who was defeated by Octavius, grandnephew of Julius Caesar. Octavius proceeded to the conquest of Egypt in 30 B.C.E., and Egypt became a Roman province. It was to this Roman province that Joseph and Mary fled with the young child Jesus to escape Herod’s murderous decree, returning after the death of Herod, so that the words of Hosea, “out of Egypt I called my son,” were fulfilled.—Matt. 2:13-15; Hos. 11:1; compare Exodus 4:22, 23.

The “Egyptian” seditionist with whom the military commander at Jerusalem confused Paul is possibly the same one mentioned by Josephus. (Wars of the Jews, Book II, chap. XIII, pars. 3-5) His insurrection is stated to have taken place during the reign of Nero and the procuratorship of Felix in Judea, circumstances fitting the account at Acts 21:37-39; 23:23, 24.

The second destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, in 70 C.E., resulted in a further fulfillment of Deuteronomy 28:68, as many surviving Jews were sent to Egypt as slaves.—Josephus’ Wars of the Jews, Book VI, chap. IX, par. 2.

OTHER PROPHETIC AND SYMBOLIC REFERENCES

A large number of the references to Egypt are in pronouncements of judgment, couched in symbolic language. (Ezek. 29:1-7; 32:1-32) To the Israelites, Egypt represented military strength and power through political alliance, so that dependence on Egypt became symbolic of dependence on human power instead of on Jehovah. (Isa. 31:1-3) But, at Isaiah 30:1-7, Jehovah showed that Egypt’s might was more in appearance than in fact, calling her “Rahab [storm or arrogance]—they are for sitting still [‘Rahab-do-nothing,’ JB].” (Compare Psalm 87:4; Isaiah 51:9, 10.) Along with the many condemnations, however, there were promises that many out of “Egypt” would come to know Jehovah, to the extent that it would be said: “Blessed be my people, Egypt.”—Isa. 19:21-25; 45:14.

Egypt is mentioned as part of the realm of the symbolic “king of the south.” (Dan. 11:5, 8, 42, 43) At Revelation 11:8 symbolic “Egypt” stands for the wicked world in which God’s Son was impaled. This usage of Egypt to represent the world of mankind alienated from God is doubtless the key to the prophecy at Isaiah 19:19, 20 concerning the ‘altar to Jehovah in the midst of Egypt’ and the ‘pillar beside its boundary.’—Compare Hebrews 13:10; John 17:15, 16.

VALUABLE PAPYRUS FINDS

The unusually dry soil of Egypt has made possible the survival of papyrus manuscripts, which, in more moist conditions, would have been destroyed. Since the latter part of the nineteenth century, many papyri have been discovered there, including a considerable number of Biblical papyri, such as the Chester Beatty collection. These provide especially important links between the original writings of the Holy Scriptures and the later vellum manuscript copies.

EGYPT, TORRENT VALLEY OF

A long wadi (or ravine) marking the God-ordained southwestern boundary of the Promised Land, that is, the “land of Canaan.” (Num. 34:2, 5; 1 Ki. 8:65; Isa. 27:12) While this torrent valley was not actually in Egypt, that nation’s domain apparently extended, at least in certain periods, up to that point. (2 Ki. 24:7) The abbreviated expression “the torrent valley,” used in defining the borders of the land of Israel in Ezekiel’s vision, apparently refers to this same ravine.—Ezek. 47:19; 48:28.

The torrent valley of Egypt is usually identified with Wadi el-ʽArish, which starts about 135 miles (217.2 kilometers) inland on the Sinai Peninsula, near Jebel et-Tih. It runs N until meeting the Mediterranean Sea at the town of el-ʽArish (Rhinocolura), ninety miles (144.8 kilometers) E of Port Said. In the summer it is nothing more than a dry bed. During the rainy season, however, when numerous tributaries pour into it, the Wadi el-ʽArish becomes a swollen torrent that tears at its banks, uprooting and sweeping even trees down in its turbulent course. This might allow for its identification as “the river of Egypt” in the boundary listing of the Promised Land at Genesis 15:18. See, however, SHIHOR.

EHI

See AHIRAM.

EHUD

(Eʹhud) [united, strong].

1. A descendant of Jediael of the tribe of Benjamin, through Bilhan; a valiant, mighty man.—1 Chron. 7:6, 10, 11.

2. Son of Gera of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 3:15) Ehud was chosen by God to deliver the nation from an eighteen-year bondage to King Eglon of Moab, an oppression God permitted because “they did what was bad in Jehovah’s eyes.”—Judg. 3:12-14.

When the Israelites began to call to Jehovah for aid, God raised up a “savior” in the person of Ehud. In time, the Israelites sent tribute to Eglon by means of Ehud, who had made a two-edged sword for himself, “its length being a cubit,” actually a lineal measurement about which there is uncertainty in this particular case. Ehud was a left-handed man, or, literally, “a man closed (impeded) of his right hand.” But this does not mean that Ehud was crippled, as such Hebrew phraseology is used in connection with seven hundred Benjamite warriors, who are not likely to have had a physical defect, but were “left-handed” and evidently ambidextrous. (Judg. 20:16; compare 1 Chronicles 12:2.) The Bible does not specifically say Ehud was ambidextrous, though that is possible. Nevertheless, being left-handed, he girded the sword underneath his garment upon his right thigh.

After presentation of the tribute, Ehud sent the tribute bearers away, but turned back at the quarries of Gilgal. Ehud then came to Eglon as the Moabite king sat in his roof chamber, and said to him: “A word of God I have for you.” Interested, Eglon arose from his throne. At that, Ehud “thrust in his left hand and took the sword off his right thigh,” plunging it into obese Eglon’s belly, with the result that “the handle kept going in also after the blade so that the fat closed in over the blade.” A right-handed man would likely draw his sword from his left side, across his body. So it is not probable that Eglon would expect Ehud to draw a sword from the right thigh, using his left hand. The enemy ruler now dead, Ehud escaped through the airhole, after closing and locking the doors of the roof chamber behind him. When Eglon’s servants finally opened the doors, they discovered that “their lord was fallen to the earth dead!”—Judg. 3:15-25.

Ehud, having escaped to the mountainous region of Ephraim, marshaled an army of Israelites, saying to them. “Follow me, because Jehovah has given your enemies, the Moabites, into your hand.” After capturing the fords of the Jordan the Israelites cut off the Moabites’ retreat to their homeland. Doubtless already greatly demoralized by their king’s death, ten thousand Moabites were struck down by the Israelites, “every one robust and every one a valiant man; and not a single one escaped.” Moab having been subdued under Israel’s hand and Ehud’s leadership, “the land had no further disturbance for eighty years.”—Judg. 3:26-30.

Ehud is not specifically called “Judge Ehud,” rather being referred to as a “savior.” (Judg. 3:15) But Othniel was called both a “savior” and a “judge” (Judg. 3:9, 10), and the period was the time of the judges. Also, only after Ehud died did the Israelites again begin to do what was bad in Jehovah’s eyes. (Judg. 4:1) So Ehud was apparently considered not only a “savior” but a judge.

3. A name that appears among the descendants of Benjamin at 1 Chronicles 8:1, 6.

EKER

(Eʹker) [offshoot, stock].

A son of Ram, Jerahmeel’s firstborn, of the tribe of Judah.—1 Chron. 2:4, 5, 9, 25, 27.

EKRON

(Ekʹron) [rooting out].

A leading Philistine city, apparently the northernmost seat of one of their five axis lords. (Josh. 13:3) Its exact position is uncertain, but of the modern locations suggested, namely, ʽAqir, Qatra and Khirbet el-Muqanna, recent excavation at the latter, twelve miles (19.3 kilometers) E-NE of Ashdod, has unearthed the largest city of its period and gives it current preference as the site of Ekron.

Ekron’s history is one of constantly changing domination. Joshua’s conquest did not include Ekron. It was not until later that the Judahites captured it. (Josh. 13:2, 3; Judg. 1:18) In the initial division of the Promised Land Ekron was on the border between Judah and Dan but within the tribe of Judah. (Josh. 15:1, 11, 45, 46; 19:40-43) By the time the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant, Ekron was back in their possession. The presence of the Ark caused “a death-dealing confusion” to break out in this city, and it was from Ekron that the Ark was finally sent back to the Jews. (1 Sam. 5:10-12; 6:16, 17) After another period under Israelite control, the Philistines apparently again had Ekron at the time David slew Goliath. (1 Sam. 7:14; 17:52) It was in the early tenth century B.C.E. that Pharaoh Shishak of Egypt claimed to have taken Ekron. Some two centuries later, according to Sennacherib’s Annals, Ekron’s King Padi was loyal to the Assyrians.

EL

[god, probably from a Hebrew root meaning strong, mighty].

Used with reference to Jehovah, to other gods and to men. In the Scriptures, when referring to Jehovah, it is found by itself in poetical books, such as Job and Psalms. Where it does occur in prose, it generally has an adjective qualifying it, such as in the titles ʼEl roʼiʹ (God of sight) (Gen. 16:13) and ʼEl Shad·dayʹ (God Almighty) (Gen. 17:1). It is also used extensively in the makeup of proper names, such as Elisha (God is salvation) and Michael (Who is like God?).

At Isaiah 9:6 Jesus Christ is prophetically called ʼEl Gib·bohrʹ, “Mighty God” (not ʼEl Shad·dayʹ, which applies to Jehovah at Genesis 17:1). ʼEl is used of idol gods at Psalm 81:9.

The plural form, ʼe·limʹ, is used when referring to other gods, at such places as Daniel 11:36 (ʼEl ʼe·limʹ, “God of gods”) and Exodus 15:11 (“gods”). It is also used as the plural of majesty and excellence, as in Psalm 89:6: “Who can resemble Jehovah among the sons of God [ʼE·limʹ]?” That the plural form is used to denote a single individual here and in a number of other places is supported by the translation of ʼE·limʹ by the singular form The·osʹ in the Septuagint Version; likewise by Deus in the Vulgate.

In some places ‘El appears with the definite article thus, ha-ʼEl (literally “the God”) with reference to Jehovah, thereby distinguishing him from other gods. (Gen. 46:3; 2 Sam. 22:31) See the New World Translation appendix, page 1452, for a list of occurrences.

ELA

(Eʹla) [ʼEl (God) + a (possibly an element of greatness)].

Father of Shimei, one of Solomon’s twelve deputies who provided food for the king and his household.—1 Ki. 4:7, 18.

ELAH

(Eʹlah) [big tree].

1. An Edomite sheik who likely occupied the village