to public view the mire and dirt of their excesses, . . . So these men foam out their own acts of shame, and cast them forth for men to see, and so to blame the Church for the ill-deeds of these professors.” (F. C. Cook, Commentary on Jude) Another says: “What they impart is as unsubstantial and valueless as the foam of the oceanside, and is in fact a proclamation of their own shame.”—Schaff-Lange, Commentary on Jude; compare Peter’s description of such men at 2 Peter 2:10-22.

SEAH

(seʹah).

A dry measure. (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 25:18; 1 Ki. 18:32; 2 Ki. 7:1, 16, 18) According to rabbinical sources, the seah measure is equal to one-third of an ephah. Since the ephah measure is reckoned at .62 bushel (22 liters) on the basis of archaeological evidence regarding the capacity of the corresponding liquid bath measure (compare Ezekiel 45:11), the seah measure would equal .21 bushel (7.33 liters).

SEAL

Ancient seals used for making impressions consisted of a piece of hard material (stone, ivory or wood) having engraved letters or designs in reverse. They were made in various shapes, including cones, squares, cylinders, scarabs and animal heads. (Regarding signet or seal rings, see RING.) Those in the form of a cylinder commonly measured between three-fourths and one and a half inches (1.9 to 3.8 centimeters) in length. Engraved on the curved surface, the cylinder, when rolled on moist clay, produced a continuous impression in relief. Often cylinder seals were pierced through from end to end and thus could be suspended from a cord.

Religious symbols, plants, animals and simple scenes are among the things depicted on Egyptian and Mesopotamian seals. The Babylonian “Temptation Seal” shows a tree with a man seated on one side and a woman on the other, and behind the woman is an erect serpent. Often seals gave the owner’s name and/or his position. For example, one seal found in Palestine reads, “[Belonging] to Shema, the minister of Jeroboam.”

Seal impressions could indicate ownership or authenticity and could prevent tampering with documents or other things, including bags, doors and even tombs, that were sealed. (Job 14:17; Dan. 6:17; Matt. 27:66) When the prophet Jeremiah purchased a field, one copy of the deed was left open, but a second copy was sealed, perhaps by folding it closed, tying it with a cord and then putting a lump of wax or another soft substance on the cord and impressing the soft material with a seal. If later any question would arise about the accuracy of the open copy, the deed that had been sealed before witnesses could be produced. (Jer. 32:10-14, 44) A person entrusted with the king’s seal could issue official decrees, the seal impression stamping the decrees as authentic. (1 Ki. 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10) Affixing one’s seal to a document could signify an acceptance of the terms contained therein. (Neh. 9:38; 10:1) Numerous ancient jar handles with seal impressions on them have been found. The seal impressions may have shown to whom the jars and their contents belonged or perhaps gave an indication of the quantity or quality of the contents.

FIGURATIVE USE

The actual uses for seals provide the basis for a number of figurative expressions found in the Bible. It was foretold that the Messiah would “imprint a seal upon vision and prophet.” This is because, by fulfilling the prophecies, the Messiah would stamp them as authentic and inspired of God. (Dan. 9:24; compare John 3:33.) In the sense of a mark of possession or ownership, Abraham received circumcision as a “seal” of the righteousness that he had. (Rom. 4:11) Since the apostle Paul had aided many Corinthian Christians to become believers, they served as a seal confirming the genuineness of his apostleship. (1 Cor. 9:1, 2) First-century Christians are spoken of as being “sealed” by means of holy spirit, which is an advance token of their heavenly inheritance. (Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:30) The seal signifies their being God’s possession (2 Cor. 1:21, 22) and shows that they are truly in line for heavenly life. The book of Revelation shows the number finally sealed to be 144,000.—Rev. 7:2-4; 9:4.

The Bible speaks of something that is closed, hidden or secret as being sealed. Prophetic messages were “sealed” during the time they were not understood. (Dan. 12:4, 9; Rev. 5:1; 22:10; compare Isaiah 8:16; 29:11.) And Jehovah is said to ‘put a seal around stars,’ evidently meaning that he hides them from view by means of clouds.—Job 9:7.

SEALSKIN

[taʹhhash].

There is considerable uncertainty as to the particular kind of skin that was used in making the outer cover of the tabernacle and for wrapping up the furnishings and utensils of the sanctuary for transport. Taʹhhash or t^ehha·shimʹ (plural) usually appears alongside ʽohr or ʽoh·rohthʹ (“skin,” “skins”). (Ex. 25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; Num. 4:6-14, 25; Ezek. 16:10) The translators of the Septuagint Version seem to have understood the Hebrew word to denote, not an animal, but a color (“blue,” Bagster’s LXX). However, the almost unanimous opinion of Jewish commentators is that taʹhhash refers to an animal. This view was also endorsed by the Hebrew lexicographer Gesenius, who considered the Septuagint reading to be simply conjecture, a rendering having neither the support of etymology nor of related languages. He understood taʹhhash to mean either the seal or the badger, basing his conclusions on the context, the authority of the Talmudists, a comparison of the Hebrew word with similar words in other languages, and on the Hebrew etymology.

Bible translators have variously rendered ʽohr (ʽoh·rohthʹ) taʹhhash (t^ehha·shimʹ) as “badgers’ skin(s)” (AV), “goatskin(s)” (RS), “porpoise skin(s)” (AT), “sealskin(s)” (AS), “leather” (Mo), “fine leather” (JB), “violet skins” (Dy, from Latin, based on Vg) and “tahash leather.” (NW, footnotes of 1953 edition in most occurrences, but “sealskin(s)” in main text) The rendering “badgers’ skin(s)” is not generally favored by scholars, since it is thought unlikely that the Israelites would have been able to procure enough badger skins, either in Egypt or in the wilderness, for covering the tabernacle. There are also scholars who consider neither “badgers’ skin(s)” nor “sealskin(s)” nor “porpoise skin(s)” to be correct, in view of the fact that badgers, seals, porpoises or dolphins, dugongs, and similar creatures were evidently unclean for food. (Lev. 11:12, 27) They therefore find it hard to conceive that the skin of an “unclean” animal would have been used for something so sacred as the construction of the tabernacle and as a protective covering for the furnishings and utensils of the sanctuary. Those taking this view suggest that taʹhhash may designate the skin of a clean animal, possibly of a kind of antelope, sheep or goat.

USABLE, THOUGH SEAL CLASSED AS UNCLEAN

The fact that seals were evidently unclean for food would not necessarily rule out using their skins as a covering for the tabernacle. For instance, whereas the lion and the eagle were “unclean” (Lev. 11:13, 27), the heavenly cherubs seen by Ezekiel in vision were depicted with four faces, including that of a lion and of an eagle. (Ezek. 1:5, 10; 10:14) Also, the copper carriages that Solomon made for temple use were adorned with representations of lions, and this undoubtedly according to the plans given to David by divine inspiration. (1 Ki. 7:27-29; 1 Chron. 28:11-19) The Israelites used “unclean” animals, such as asses, for mounts, it even being foretold that the Messiah would ride into Jerusalem upon an ass. (Zech. 9:9; Matt. 21:4, 5) Although John the Baptist had a most sacred commission to “go in advance before Jehovah