of flame and smoke also highly recommended it for cooking. (John 21:9) For smelting and refining metals, charcoal was indispensable; without it, to reach and sustain the great temperatures required to reduce the ores to basic metals was hardly possible. (Isa. 44:12; 54:16; see REFINE, REFINER.) Much the same as is done today in charging an iron blast furnace, the ore was sandwiched in between layers of charcoal. This practice probably gave rise to the proverb: kindness toward an enemy is like coals of fire upon his head; it softens his anger and brings out the good in him. (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20) The glow of slow-burning charcoal was used by the “wise woman” of Tekoa as an illustration of living posterity.—2 Sam. 14:1-7.

However, the Hebrew words ga·hheʹleth and pe·hhamʹ are not always rendered “charcoal,” for oftentimes they simply mean “coals” or burning embers. Wood was used as fuel for the tabernacle altar (Lev. 1:7, 8; 3:5), and on the day of atonement “burning coals of fire from off the altar” made the incense overspread the ark of the covenant like a cloud. (Lev. 16:12, 13) Isaiah described the idolater that makes a god out of part of the same tree with which he builds a fire, the coals of which bake his bread.—Isa. 44:14, 15, 19.

In a number of Scripture passages “coals” are used in a somewhat figurative or illustrative sense, indicating any kind of glowing hot burning substance. (2 Sam. 22:9; Job 41:21; Ps. 18:8, 12, 13; 140:10; Isa. 6:6; Ezek. 1:13; 10:2; 24:11) The hot “burning coals of the broom trees” were used to represent the retribution upon one with a “tricky tongue.”—Ps. 120:2-4.

CHARIOT

A two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle, developed primarily for the battlefield rather than for troop movement behind the lines. It provided fast transport in combat, gave soldiers a mobile firing platform, and furnished them with psychological shock power when charging into ranks of foot soldiers. Chariots with many variations of design are widely illustrated on ancient monuments, attesting to both their antiquity and widespread use.

Basically, the chariot usually consisted of a semicircular platform mounted on a single axle, with sides thigh-high and curved around the front; the open back of the car provided quick and easy entrance. The chariot car had a tongue and yoke harnessed to speedy horses. A floor of rope network gave better footing than a smooth wooden surface. Often chariots were outfitted with auxiliary equipment consisting of quiver and bow cases, shields and spears. An added menace to foot soldiers were the iron scythes that sometimes extended from the hubs of the wheels. (Josh. 17:16, 18; Judg. 1:19) When there was only one charioteer, the reins were held around his waist or hips in battle, leaving his hands free to handle the weapons. Larger and heavier chariots with multiple spans of horses had crews of two, three or four, with a driver and one or two fighters, and perhaps a shield-man.

Speed, maneuverability and stability were prime factors that were improved with continued development. For example, by moving the axle toward the rear, greater maneuverability and stability were achieved. Replacing solid wheels with spoked ones lightened the weight and increased the speed. (1 Ki. 7:33) The six-spoke wheel became the most common, though some wheels were designed with four, eight or more. Using lightweight woods, with only the fittings of leather, bronze or iron, made chariots light enough that one or two men could carry them over rough terrain or small streams.

War chariots were employed by many of the pagan nations who opposed Israel. At the Red Sea in 1513 B.C.E. Pharaoh’s entire army including his six hundred special war chariots, “and all the other chariots of Egypt,” were destroyed by Jehovah. (Ex. 14:6, 7; 15:4, 19; Josh. 24:6) When conquering the Promised Land, the Israelites routed the enemy and burned many of their captured chariots. (Josh. 11:4-9) Jabin the king of Canaan held the Israelites in bondage for twenty years until Jehovah pinned down and destroyed his fleet of 900 chariots equipped with iron scythes and commanded by Sisera, at the Kishon River. (Judg. 4:2, 3, 13, 15, 16; 5:28) During the period of Israel’s kings, at one time or another, the Philistines, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Syrians, Assyrians and Babylonians battled against them with large chariot forces, as many as 30,000 and 32,000 chariots on different occasions. (1 Sam. 13:5; 2 Sam 1:6; 1 Chron. 19:6, 7, 18; 2 Chron. 12:2, 3; 14:9; 16:8; Isa. 37:21, 24) In pronouncements of doom, the prophets sometimes mentioned the chariots in which such nations prided themselves.—Jer. 50:37; 51:21; Mic. 5:10, 15.

The more level places, such as the plains of Philistia and the broad valley of Jezreel, were better suited for chariot warfare than the hilly country. On one occasion the Syrians boasted that their chariots would overcome Israel if the latter could be lured out of the mountains to fight on the flat land, for, as they thought, “[Israel’s] God is a God of mountains.” However, the great defeat suffered by the Syrians proved that Jehovah is also “a God of low plains.”—1 Ki. 20:23-30.

In Israel no sizable national chariot force developed until the time of Solomon. This was due in large measure to God’s warning that the king was not to multiply horses, as if the nation’s security depended on them. This restriction limited the use of chariots, since at that time horses were used to power such vehicles. (Deut. 17:16) However, when Samuel warned of the burden that human kings would inflict on the people, he told them: “Your sons he will take and put them as his in his chariots . . . and some will have to run before his chariots.” (1 Sam. 8:11) Both Absalom and Adonijah, in attempting to usurp the kingship, had chariots made for themselves and put fifty men to run before each chariot. (2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Ki. 1:5) When David defeated the king of Zobah, he preserved a hundred chariot horses.—2 Sam. 8:3, 4; 10:18.

King Solomon, in building up the army of Israel, expanded the number of chariots to 1,400. (1 Ki. 10:26, 29; 2 Chron. 1:14, 17) In addition to Jerusalem, other towns known as “chariot cities” had special facilities for taking care of all this mechanized war equipment.—1 Ki. 9:19, 22; 2 Chron. 8:6, 9; 9:25.

After Solomon’s death, chariots were common in both the northern and southern kingdoms. The northern kingdom had a “chief of half the chariots,” indicating that there were two principal divisions of chariots. (1 Ki. 16:9) Archaeologists believe they have found the remains of large stables at Megiddo, some possibly of Solomon’s time, others suggested to be of Ahab’s reign. King Jehu was recognized by his furious chariot driving. (2 Ki. 9:20) Several kings, of both Judah and Israel, were fatally wounded in their chariots, namely, Ahab, Jehoram, Ahaziah and Josiah.—1 Ki. 22:34-38; 2 Ki. 9:21, 24, 27; 2 Chron. 18:33, 34; 35:23, 24.

The prophet Isaiah declared to rebellious Israel: “Woe to those going down to Egypt for assistance, those who rely on mere horses, and who put their trust in war chariots, because they are numerous, and in steeds, because they are very mighty, but who have not looked to the Holy One of Israel and have not searched for Jehovah himself.”—Isa. 31:1.

Though the chariot was primarily a war implement, and was also useful in the chase of wild animals, there are also instances where it was used for peaceful purposes. Joseph as a food administrator of Egypt rode in a chariot of honor, second only to that of Pharaoh. In his chariot he rode out to meet his father Jacob when he entered Egypt. (Gen. 41:43; 46:29) Upon Jacob’s death many chariots were in