the Pharisees endeavored to harmonize the idea of fate with their belief in God and with the free moral agency granted to man. (Wars of the Jews, Book II, chap. VIII, par. 14; Antiquities of the Jews, Book XVIII, chap. I, par. 3) The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (Vol. IX, p. 192) says: “Previous to Augustine [of the fourth and fifth centuries C.E.] there was no serious development in Christianity of a theory of predestination.” Before Augustine, earlier so-called “Church Fathers” such as Justin, Origen and Irenaeus “know nothing of unconditional predestination; they teach free will.” In their refutation of Gnosticism, they are described as regularly expressing their belief in the free moral agency of man as “the distinguishing characteristic of human personality, the basis of moral responsibility, a divine gift whereby men might choose that which was well-pleasing to God” and as speaking of the “autonomy of man and the counsel of God who constraineth not.”—Hasting’s Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, p. 231; The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IX, p. 193.

FORERUNNER

One who goes in advance to prepare for the coming of another. This might include scouting and spying, clearing the way, proclaiming and giving notice of another’s approach, or showing the way for others to follow. The forerunner is usually, but not always, of less importance than the person who follows.

It was the Oriental custom that runners go before the royal chariot to prepare and announce the king’s coming and to assist him generally. (1 Sam. 8:11) Absalom and Adonijah, in imitation of such regal dignity and to add prestige and seeming sanction to their respective rebellions, placed fifty runners before their personal chariots.—2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Ki. 1:5; see RUNNERS.

John the Baptist was in reality the forerunner of Christ, in fulfillment of Isaiah 40:3 and Malachi 3:1 and 4:5, 6: “Someone is calling out in the wilderness: ‘Clear up the way of Jehovah, . . . Make the highway . . . straight.’” “I am sending my messenger, and he must clear up a way before me.” John’s advance proclamation, therefore, aroused people to expect, look for and wait for Jesus, that, in turn, they might listen to him, honor him and follow him. (Matt. 3:1-12; 11:7, 10, 14; Mark 9:11-13; Luke 1:13-17, 76; John 1:35-37; see “Let Your Name Be Sanctified,” chapters 13 and 16.) In a similar manner, messengers were sent out in advance of Jesus, and these went into a village of the Samaritans “to make preparation for him.”—Luke 9:52.

Jesus himself, however, is the one referred to in the only passage of Scripture using the word “forerunner.” (Heb. 6:19, 20) He was not a forerunner in the sense of being inferior to those who followed after him. Rather, he was the first to enter heavenly glory, opening and preparing the way for the heavenly congregation of his footstep followers. (John 14:2, 3) Hence, they have boldness to enter in through the way their Forerunner inaugurated.—Heb. 10:19-22.

FORESKIN

See CIRCUMCISION.

FOREST

At one time the land of Palestine had abundant forests with trees of many types. The Scriptural references to forests and woodlands and to the use of wood materials make it evident that trees were then much more common there than at present. (2 Chron. 27:4; Judg. 9:48, 49) This is also made certain from the description of wild animal life, showing that the forests were such as provided adequate cover and habitation for bears (2 Ki. 2:23, 24), lions (1 Sam. 17:34; 1 Chron. 11:22), and other forms of animal life.—Ezek. 34:25.

But deforestation of large areas has come about due to the devastation of war, the extensive use of timber with no accompanying effort to replenish the forests, and uncontrolled grazing, in which the young shoots of new trees have been eaten by goats and other animals. Denis Baly, in his book The Geography of the Bible (1957, p. 92), speaks of “a thousand years of neglect,” which has resulted in the disappearance of many woodlands and the severe erosion of soil, leaving much of the land rocky and barren.

Certain forests are specifically mentioned in the Bible. The forests of Lebanon, now reduced to a few small groves, were outstanding for their splendid tree growth (1 Ki. 5:2-10, 13-18; 2 Ki. 19:23), with great quantities of cedar, juniper, cypress and other trees. The “forest of Ephraim” (perhaps “forest of Mahanaim”), in which Absalom met disaster, may have been located E of the Jordan River near Mahanaim and appears to have been of considerable density. (2 Sam. 18:6, 8, 17, NW, 1955 ed., ftn.) The “forest of Hereth” was in Judah. (1 Sam. 22:5) Additionally, the region of Gilead was famous for its woodlands and balsam trees, while Bashan to the N was noted for its “massive trees,” apparently including the oak. (Isa. 2:13; Zech. 11:2) In the days of David and Solomon, sycamore trees grew in abundance in the Shephelah lowlands. (1 Ki. 10:27; 1 Chron. 27:28; 2 Chron. 1:15; 9:27) The Jordan valley had a thick growth of tamarisks and willows, where lions lurked.—Jer. 12:5; Zech. 11:3.

SYMBOLIC USE

Even as trees are used to symbolize individual persons and rulers, so the Bible uses forests symbolically for peoples or nations and their rulers. The wickedness of apostate Judah was like a flame to burn up her people (Isa. 9:18); their people would be cut down and thinned out like trees of a forest (Isa. 10:19, 34); Jehovah’s anger would burn up the southern kingdom (Judah) with an unextinguishable flame. (Ezek. 20:46-48) Similar prophecies are given against pagan nations, enemies of God’s people.—Ps. 83:14, 15; Jer. 46:22, 23.

FORETELLER OF EVENTS

A person claiming ability to forecast what will take place in the future, among whom the Bible names magic-practicing priests, spiritistic diviners, astrologers and others. Some of these possessed occult powers by virtue of contact with the demons, the wicked angelic enemies of God under Satan the Devil, the ruler of the demons. (Luke 11:14-20) In ancient times various methods were employed by these prognosticators in obtaining their messages of prediction: stargazing (Isa. 47:13); examination of the liver and other viscera of sacrificed animal victims (Ezek. 21:21); interpretation of omens (2 Ki. 21:6); consultation with the so-called “spirits” of the dead, and so forth.—Deut. 18:11.

The lives of the Egyptians, like the lives of the Babylonians, were regulated to a large extent by their fortune-tellers. (Isa. 19:3) On the other hand, God’s true servants never looked to such persons for information. When the Law was given to Israel shortly after their release from bondage in Egypt, they were strictly forbidden to consult “professional foretellers of events.” (Lev. 19:31) Having “immoral intercourse” with them would result in being cut off (in death) from among God’s people. And as to the one practicing the art, the law went on to say: “As for a man or woman in whom there proves to be a mediumistic spirit or spirit of prediction, they should be put to death without fail.” (Lev. 20:6, 27) Nearly forty years later, when poised to enter the Promised Land and to drive out its inhabitants, Israel was reminded: “You must not learn to do according to the detestable things of those nations. There should not be found in you . . . anyone who consults a spirit medium or a professional foreteller of events or anyone who inquires of the dead.”—Deut. 18:9-11.

More than 350 years later, Israel’s first king, Saul, removed all the foretellers of events from the land, but before his death he had fallen so far away from Jehovah that he personally sought out a “mistress of spirit mediumship in En-dor” to foretell his future.