such a change in attitude from that night when he denied Jesus, and also to endure the flogging meted out by the rulers. (Acts 5:40-42) Prior to this arrest Peter had been inspired to expose the hypocrisy of Ananias and Sapphira and pronounce God’s judgment upon them.—Acts 5:1-11.

Not long after the martyrdom of Stephen, when Philip (the evangelist) had aided and baptized a number of believers in Samaria, Peter and John traveled there to enable these believers to receive the holy spirit. Then the two apostles “went declaring the good news” to many Samaritan villages on their return to Jerusalem. (Acts 8:5-25) Peter evidently went out again on a mission during which, at Lydda, he healed Aeneas, paralyzed for eight years, and resurrected the woman Dorcas of Joppa. (Acts 9:32-43) From Joppa, Peter was guided to use the second ‘key of the kingdom,’ traveling to Caesarea to preach to Cornelius and his relatives and friends, resulting in their becoming the first uncircumcised Gentile believers to receive the holy spirit as Kingdom heirs. Upon his return to Jerusalem, Peter had to face opposers of this action but gained their ‘acquiescence’ by presenting the evidence that he had acted at heaven’s direction.—Acts 10:1–11:18; compare Matthew 16:19.

It was evidently about this same year (36 C.E.) that Paul made his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian convert and apostle. He went to “visit Cephas [Peter],” spending fifteen days with him, seeing also James (the half brother of Jesus) but none of the other original apostles.—Gal. 1:18, 19; see APOSTLE (Congregational apostleships).

According to available evidence, it was in 44 C.E. that Herod Agrippa I executed the apostle James and, finding this pleased the Jewish leaders, next arrested Peter. (Acts 12:1-4) ‘Intense prayer’ was carried on by the congregation for Peter, and Jehovah’s angel freed him from prison (and probable death). After relating his miraculous release to those at John Mark’s home, Peter asked that a report be made to “James and the brothers,” and then Peter “journeyed to another place.”—Acts 12:5-17; compare John 7:1; 11:53, 54.

He next appears in the Acts account at the assembly of “apostles and the older men” held in Jerusalem to consider the issue of circumcision for Gentile converts, likely in the year 49 C.E. After considerable disputing had gone on, Peter rose and gave testimony as to God’s dealings with Gentile believers. That “the entire multitude became silent” gives evidence of the strength of his argument and, likely, also of the respect in which he was held. Peter, like Paul and Barnabas whose testimony followed his, was in effect on the ‘witness stand’ before the assembly. Perhaps because of this, Peter, though arguing against imposing a burdensome “yoke” on the Gentile Christians, did not present the final resolution for the assembly’s adoption, this being offered by James. (Acts 15:1-29) Nonetheless, Paul at that time speaks of Peter along with James and John as “outstanding men,” “the ones who seemed to be pillars” in the congregation.—Gal. 2:1, 2, 6-9.

From the record as a whole it is evident that Peter, while certainly very prominent and respected, exercised no primacy over the apostles in the sense of, or on the basis of, appointed rank or office. Thus, when Philip’s work in Samaria proved fruitful, the account states that the apostles, apparently acting as a body, “dispatched Peter and John” on the mission to Samaria. (Acts 8:14) Peter did not remain permanently at Jerusalem as though his presence were essential for the proper government of the Christian congregation. (Acts 8:25; 9:32; 12:17; see also OLDER MAN; OVERSEER.) He was active in Antioch, Syria, at the same time that Paul was there, and Paul once found it necessary to reprove Peter (Cephas) “face to face . . . before them all” because of Peter’s being ashamed to eat and similarly associate with Gentile Christians due to the presence of certain Jewish Christians who had come from James in Jerusalem.—Gal. 2:11-14.

Further information on the question of Peter’s position in the Christian congregation is provided under ROCK-MASS. The view that Peter was in Rome and headed the congregation there has only dubious tradition for its support and does not harmonize well with the Scriptural indications. On this point, and with regard to Peter’s residing in Babylon and its being the site from which he wrote his two letters, see PETER, LETTERS OF.

PETER, LETTERS OF

Two inspired letters of the Christian Greek Scriptures composed by the apostle Peter, who identifies himself as the writer in the opening words of each letter. (1 Pet. 1:1; 2 Pet. 1:1; compare 2 Peter 3:1.) Additional internal evidence unmistakably points to Peter as the writer. He speaks of himself as an eyewitness of the transfiguration of Jesus Christ, a privilege shared only by Peter, James and John. (2 Pet. 1:16-18; Matt. 17:1-9) And, as evident from John 21:18, 19, Peter alone could have said: “The putting off of my tabernacle is soon to be, just as also our Lord Jesus Christ signified to me.” (2 Pet. 1:14) The difference in style between the two letters may be attributed to the fact that Peter used Silvanus (Silas) for writing the first letter but apparently did not do so when writing his second letter. (1 Pet. 5:12) Both were general letters, evidently directed to Jewish and non-Jewish Christians. The first letter is specifically addressed to those in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, regions of Asia Minor.—1 Pet. 1:1; 2:10; 2 Pet. 1:1; 3:1; compare Acts 2:5, 9, 10.

The letters of Peter agree fully with other Bible books in stressing right conduct and its rewards and also in quoting from them as the authoritative Word of God. Quotations are made from Genesis (18:12; 1 Pet. 3:6), Exodus (19:5, 6; 1 Pet. 2:9), Leviticus (11:44; 1 Pet. 1:16), Psalms (34:12-16; 118:22; 1 Pet. 3:10-12; 2:7), Proverbs (11:31 [LXX]; 26:11; 1 Pet. 4:18; 2 Pet. 2:22) and Isaiah (8:14; 28:16; 40:6-8; 53:5; 1 Pet. 2:8; 2:6; 1:24, 25; 2:24). Scriptural prophecy is shown to be the product of God’s spirit. (2 Pet. 1:20, 21; compare 2 Timothy 3:16.) God’s promise concerning new heavens and a new earth is repeated. (2 Pet. 3:13; Isa. 65:17; 66:22; Rev. 21:1) The parallels between 2 Peter (2:4-18; 3:3) and Jude (5-13, 17, 18) evidently indicate that the disciple Jude accepted Peter’s second letter as inspired. Noteworthy, too, is the fact that the letters of the apostle Paul are classified by Peter with “the rest of the Scriptures.”—2 Pet. 3:15, 16.

TIME OF WRITING

From the tone of the letters it appears that they were written prior to the outbreak of Nero’s persecution in 64 C.E. The fact that Mark was with Peter would seem to place the time of composition of the first letter between 62 and 64 C.E. (1 Pet. 5:13) Earlier, during the apostle Paul’s first imprisonment at Rome (c. 60-61 C.E.), Mark was there, and when Paul was imprisoned for a second time at Rome (c. 65 C.E.) he requested that Timothy and Mark join him. (Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11) Likely Peter wrote his second letter not long after his first, or about 64 C.E.

WRITTEN FROM BABYLON

According to Peter’s own testimony, he composed his first letter while at Babylon. (1 Pet. 5:13) Possibly also from there he wrote his second letter. Available evidence clearly shows that “Babylon” refers to the city on the Euphrates and not to Rome, as some have claimed. Having been entrusted with ‘the good news for those who are circumcised,’ Peter could be expected to serve in a center of Judaism, such as Babylon. (Gal. 2:8, 9) Since Peter wrote to “the temporary residents scattered about in [literal] Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1 Pet. 1:1), it logically follows that the source of the letter, “Babylon,” was the literal place by that name. Never does the Bible indicate that Babylon specifically refers to Rome, nor does it state that Peter was ever in Rome. The first to claim that Peter was martyred at Rome is Dionysius, bishop of Corinth in the latter half of the second century. Earlier, Clement of Rome, though mentioning Paul and Peter together, makes Paul’s preaching in both the E and the W a distinguishing feature of that apostle, implying that Peter was never in the W. As the vicious persecution of Christians by the Roman government (under Nero) had seemingly not yet begun, there would have been no reason for Peter to veil the identity of Rome by the use of another name. When Paul wrote to the Romans, sending greetings by name to many in Rome, he omitted Peter. Had Peter been a leading overseer there, this would have been an unlikely omission. Also, Peter’s name is not included among those sending greetings in Paul’s letters written from Rome (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 2 Timothy, Philemon, Hebrews).

FIRST PETER

The Christians to whom the apostle Peter addressed his first letter were experiencing severe trials. (1 Pet. 1:6) Additionally, the “end of all things” had drawn close—evidently the end of the Jewish system of things foretold by Jesus. (Compare Mark 13:1-4; 1 Thessalonians 2:14-16; Hebrews 9:26.) It was, therefore, a time for them to be “vigilant with a view to prayers.” (1 Pet. 4:7; compare Matthew 26:40-45.) They also needed encouragement to endure faithfully, the very encouragement provided by the apostle.

Repeatedly Peter reminded fellow Christians of the blessings they enjoyed. Because of God’s mercy, they had received a new birth to a living hope, giving them reason for rejoicing. (1 Pet. 1:3-9) They had been bought with Christ’s precious blood. (1 Pet. 1:18, 19) By putting away the filth of the flesh and making request to God for a good conscience, they had received their request. (1 Pet. 3:21–4:6) As living stones they were being built on Christ Jesus to become a spiritual house or temple. They were “a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for special possession.”—1 Pet. 2:4-10.

In view of what God and his Son had done in their behalf, Christians, as Peter showed, had reason to endure sufferings and to maintain fine conduct. They were to expect sufferings, for “even Christ died once for all time concerning sins, a righteous person for unrighteous ones.” (1 Pet. 3:17, 18) Sharing in the sufferings of Christ was in itself a reason for rejoicing, as it would result in being overjoyed at the revelation of Christ’s glory. To be reproached for the name of Christ constituted an evidence of having God’s spirit. (1 Pet. 4:12-14) The trials themselves resulted in faith of tested quality, which was needed for salvation. (1 Pet. 1:6-9) Moreover, by faithfully enduring, they would continue to experience God’s care. He would make them firm and strong.—1 Pet. 5:6-10.

However, as Peter emphasized, Christians were never to suffer because of being lawbreakers. (1 Pet. 4:15-19) Theirs was to be exemplary conduct, which would serve to silence ignorant talk against them. (1 Pet. 2:12, 15, 16) This involved every aspect of a Christian’s life—his relationship to governmental authority and to masters, family members and Christian brothers. (1 Pet. 2:13–3:9) It called for right use of the organs of speech, holding a good conscience (1 Pet. 3:10-22) and remaining free from the defiling practices of the nations. (1 Pet. 4:1-3) Inside the congregation, older men serving as shepherds were not to lord it over the sheep, but do their work willingly and eagerly. The younger men were to be in subjection to the older men. (1 Pet. 5:1-5) All Christians were to be hospitable, seek to build one another up, have intense love for one another, and gird themselves with lowliness of mind.—1 Pet. 4:7-11; 5:5.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Salutation and pronouncement of blessing (1:1, 2)

II. Manner in which Christians who had received new birth to living hope should conduct selves (1:3–5:11)

A. Rejoice despite trials, as trials result in tested quality of faith, which is needed for salvation (1:3-12; compare 4:12, 13)

B. Brace up mind for activity, keep senses completely, become holy, conduct selves with fear, love brothers intensely, and put away moral badness, deceitfulness, hypocrisy, envies and backbiting (1:13–2:3)

C. As part of God’s spiritual temple built on Christ Jesus and also of God’s holy nation, they are aliens and temporary residents and should ‘maintain conduct fine among nations’ (2:4-12)

1. Show proper subjection (2:13–3:6)

a. To king and governors (2:13-17)

b. House servants to owners, even if hard to please; take Christ as example if suffering unjustly (2:18-25)

c. Wives to husbands (3:1-6)

(1). May win unbelieving husbands through good conduct (3:1, 2)

(2). Not outward adornment, but quiet and mild spirit important; imitate Sarah (3:3-6)

2. Husbands to assign honor to wives (3:7)

3. All be like-minded among selves, exercising brotherly love and not paying back injury for injury; even if suffering for righteousness’ sake results, will be happy; be ready to make defense of hope; hold good conscience (3:8-22)

4. Have same mental disposition as Christ and keep clean from debased practices of nations (4:1-6)

5. “End of all things” having drawn close, be sound in mind and vigilant with view to prayers, have intense love for fellow Christians, be hospitable, and build one another up (4:7-11)

6. Suffer for Christ’s name but never as lawbreaker (4:12-19)

7. Proper relationships to be maintained inside the congregation (5:1-5)

a. Older men to shepherd flock willingly, not lording over sheep but being examples to them (5:1-4)

b. Younger men to be in subjection to older men; all to gird themselves with lowliness of mind (5:5)

8. Humble selves under hand of God; take stand against Devil (5:6-11)

III. Concluding encouragement and greeting (5:12-14)

SECOND PETER

The purpose of Peter’s second letter was to assist Christians to make their calling and choosing sure and to avoid being led astray by false teachers and ungodly men within the congregation itself. (2 Pet. 1:10, 11; 3:14-18) Christians are urged to have faith, virtue, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godly devotion, brotherly affection and love (2 Pet. 1:5-11), and are admonished to pay attention to the inspired “prophetic word.” (2 Pet. 1:16-21) Examples of past executions of Jehovah’s judgments against ungodly persons are cited to show that those abandoning the path of righteousness will not escape God’s wrath. (2 Pet. 2:1-22) Despite what ridiculers might say in the “last days,” the coming of Jehovah’s day, a day for the execution of ungodly men, is just as certain as what befell the world of Noah’s day. Also, God’s promise of new heavens and a new earth is sure and should inspire diligent efforts to be found unblemished from God’s standpoint.—2 Pet. 3:1-18.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Salutation (1:1)

II. Reminder to Christians concerning requirements for divine approval and entrance into kingdom (1:2–3:18)

A. Faith virtue, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godly devotion, brotherly affection and love needed (1:2-15)

B. Should pay attention to prophetic word, which is a product of God’s spirit and made more sure by transfiguration vision (1:16-21)

C. Must guard against false teachers and other corrupt persons (2:1-22)

1. False teachers to arise among Christians; not to escape judgment, as shown by what befell disobedient angels, world of Noah’s day and Sodom and Gomorrah (2:1-10)

2. Description of those desiring to defile flesh and looking down on lordship (2:10-19)

3. Persons departing from path of righteousness like dog returning to vomit and like bathed sow going back to rolling in mire (2:20-22)

D. Should keep in mind Jehovah’s day and promise of new heavens and a new earth (3:1-18)

1. Coming of Jehovah’s day certain; ridiculers ignore past destruction of ungodly in Noah’s day (3:1-7)

2. Jehovah not slow, but patient, giving persons opportunity to repent and escape destruction (3:8-10)

3. Need for maintaining proper conduct and guarding against being led astray, in view of coming destruction and ushering in of new heavens and a new earth (3:11-18)

See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 249-253.

PETHAHIAH

(Peth·a·hiʹah) [Jehovah opens].

1. The paternal house selected for the nineteenth of the twenty-four rotating priestly divisions that David organized.—1 Chron. 24:5-7, 16.

2. One of the Levites whom Ezra encouraged to dismiss their foreign wives. (Ezra 10:23, 44) Possibly the same as No. 3 below.

3. One of the Levites who joined in proposing the “trustworthy arrangement” to the returned exiles in which they reviewed the history of God’s dealings with their nation, confessed their sin and agreed to renew true worship. (Neh. 9:5-38) Possibly the same as No. 2 above.

4. A postexilic go-between for the restored exiles and the Persian king; son of Meshezabel and descendant of Zerah in the tribe of Judah.—Neh. 11:24.

PETHOR

(Peʹthor).

The home of Balaam, the prophet who attempted to curse Israel. Pethor was situated “by the River,” apparently the Euphrates, in “Aram-naharaim” (Masoretic text) or “Mesopotamia” (LXX). (Num. 22:5; 23:7; Deut. 23:4, NW, 1953 ed., ftn.) It is generally identified with the “Pitru” of Assyrian inscriptions. Pitru lay on the Sajur River, a western tributary of the Euphrates to the S of Carchemish. However, only if the region designated “Aram-naharaim” or “Mesopotamia” extended W of the Euphrates in this area would such location on the Sajur fit the Biblical description.

PETHUEL

(Pe·thuʹel).

Father of the prophet Joel.—Joel 1:1.

PEULLETHAI

(Pe·ulʹle·thai) [wages of Jah].

The eighth of Obed-edom’s sons, listed as a gatekeeper.—1 Chron. 26:1, 4, 5, 15.

PHANUEL

(Phanʹu·el) [face of God].

A descendant of Asher, whose daughter Anna was a prophetess at the temple in Jerusalem when Joseph and Mary brought Jesus there.—Luke 2:36.

PHARAOH

A title given to the kings of Egypt. It is derived from the Egyptian word (pr-ʽʼ) for “Great House.” In the earliest documents of Egypt the word apparently designated the royal palace and in course of time came to apply to the head of government, the king. Scholars hold that this latter application came about the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. If so, this would mean that Moses used the term as applied in his day (1593-1473 B.C.E.) when recording the account of Abraham’s visit to Egypt. (Gen. 12:14-20) On the other hand, it is entirely possible that the title was so applied in Abraham’s day (2018-1843 B.C.E.), if not in official documents, then at least in common usage. The first document in which the title is connected with the king’s personal name comes from the reign of Shishak, who ruled contemporaneously with Solomon and Rehoboam. In the Bible the title is similarly linked with the name in the cases of Pharaoh Nechoh (2 Ki. 23:29) and Pharaoh Hophra (Jer. 44:30), of the late seventh and early sixth centuries B.C.E. By this time Egyptian documents were also inserting the title in the “cartouches” or name rings especially reserved for writing the royal name.

The pharaohs named in the Bible are Shishak, So, Tirhakah, Nechoh and Hophra, each of these being considered under separate articles in this work. There is some question as to whether Zerah the Ethiopian was a ruler of Egypt or not. Other pharaohs are left anonymous. Due to the confused state of Egyptian chronology (see CHRONOLOGY [pp. 324, 325] and EGYPT, EGYPTIAN, p. 495), it is not possible to connect these pharaohs to those of secular history with any degree of certainty. These anonymous pharaohs include: The one who tried to take Abraham’s wife Sarah (Gen. 12:15-20); the pharaoh who promoted Joseph’s rise to authority (Gen. 41:39-46); the pharaoh (or pharaohs) of the period of oppression of the Israelites prior to Moses’ return from Midian (Ex. chaps. 1 and 2); the pharaoh ruling during the ten plague and at the time of the Exodus (Ex. chaps. 5 to 14); the father of Bithiah, wife of Mered of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18); the pharaoh who gave asylum to Hadad of Edom in David’s time (1 Ki. 11:18-22); the father of Solomon’s Egyptian wife (1 Ki. 3:1); and the pharaoh who struck down Gaza during the days of Jeremiah the prophet.—Jer. 47:1.

The Egyptians viewed the ruling pharaoh as a god, the son of the sun-god Ra, and not merely the representative of the gods. He was thought to be the incarnation of the falcon god Horus the successor of Osiris. Among the pompous titles accorded him were “the sun of the two lands (Upper and Lower Egypt),” “Horus the master of the palace,” “the mighty god,” “offspring of Ra,” “the eternal,” and many, many others. Fastened to the front of his crown was an image of the sacred uraeus or cobra, which supposedly spat out fire and destruction upon his enemies. The image of the pharaoh was often placed in temples among those of the other gods. There are even Egyptian pictures of the reigning pharaoh worshiping his own image. As god, Pharaoh’s word was law and he ruled not according to a law code but by decree. Nevertheless, history shows that his supposedly absolute power was considerably limited by other forces within the empire, including the priesthood, the nobility and the military. These points help in understanding how difficult Moses’ assignment was in appearing before Pharaoh and presenting Jehovah’s requests and warnings.—Compare Exodus 5:1, 2; 10:27, 28.

The name of the daughter of Pharaoh who became the wife of the Judean Mered apparently indicates that she had become a convert to true worship, for Bithiah means “daughter [or worshiper] of Jehovah.” (1 Chron. 4:1, 18) But there is nothing to indicate that the daughter of Pharaoh given to Solomon in marriage abandoned her false worship. (1 Ki. 3:1; 11:1-6) Such marriages were often employed by ancient kings (as also by modern ones) as a means for strengthening their relations with other kingdoms. The