-
CorinthAid to Bible Understanding
-
-
shops opened out onto the marketplace, some of the remains discovered giving evidence of shops used for the sale of meat and other foodstuffs, as well as wine. The word macellum was applied to one shop in an inscription. This term is the Latin equivalent of the Greek maʹkel·lon, used by Paul in referring to the “meat market” at 1 Corinthians 10:25. Another inscription found on a step read “Lucius, the butcher.” An unusual feature was that all these shops were serviced with fresh water flowing from a natural fountain through subterranean channels into individual wells in each shop. Evidently this allowed for cooling perishable products.
Near the center of the Agora, excavations revealed an elevated outdoor speakers’ stand called the Bema or Rostra, extending out from the terrace that divided the upper and lower levels of the Agora. Built of white and blue marble and richly decorated with delicate carvings, the stand had two waiting rooms alongside with mosaic floors and marble benches. The Bema is believed to be the “judgment seat” where Jews opposed to the Christian message brought Paul for a hearing before proconsul Gallio. (Acts 18:12-16) An inscription found at Delphi, a city on the N side of the Bay of Corinth, bears the name of Gallio and indicates that he was proconsul at Corinth during 51 and 52 C.E.—See GALLIO.
To the NW of the marketplace stood two theaters, once capable of holding some eighteen thousand persons. Corinthian Christians could well appreciate Paul’s reference to the apostles’ being “a theatrical spectacle to the world.” (1 Cor. 4:9) In a plaza near the theater, archaeologists found an inscription mentioning a certain Erastus who bore the Latin title of aedile, translated by some as “commissioner of public works.” This Erastus could be the “city steward” of the same name mentioned by Paul when writing to the Romans from Corinth. (Rom. 16:23) The Greek term used by Paul (oi·ko·noʹmos) means, basically, “one who manages” or “an administrator.”—See ERASTUS No. 2.
RELIGION AND CULTURE
Notable as Corinth was as a seat of governmental authority and as the leading commercial city of Greece, in the minds of many persons the city symbolized licentiousness and wanton luxury, so much so that the expression “to corinthianize” came into use as meaning “to practice whoredom.” This sensuality was a product of Corinthian worship, particularly of the goddess Aphrodite (counterpart of the Roman Venus, the Phoenician and Canaanite Astarte, and the Babylonian Ishtar). A temple dedicated to her worship sat on top of the Acrocorinthus and one thousand female slaves served Aphrodite as temple prostitutes. Paul had good reason for giving the Corinthian Christians strong counsel and warning regarding moral conduct. (1 Cor. 6:9–7:11; 2 Cor. 12:21) Corinth, of course, had temples to many other gods and goddesses. At the temple of Asklepios, the god of healing, archaeologists have found flesh-colored terra-cotta representations of parts of the human body. These were left at the temple as votive offerings by worshipers, each offering representing the particular afflicted member (hand, foot, breast, and so forth) of the worshiper.
The population of Corinth at the peak of its power has been estimated as 200,000 free residents, with perhaps twice that many slaves. In Paul’s day it was a cosmopolitan city, with people from many lands and races. Besides the Greeks, there was a considerable segment of Italians, descended from the earlier colonizers. Many of the Corinthian disciples bore Latin names, such as Justus, Tertius, Quartus, Gaius, Crispus, Fortunatus and Achaicus. (Acts 18:7; Rom. 16:22, 23; 1 Cor. 1:14; 16:17) A large number of Jews had settled there and established a synagogue, drawing some Greek adherents. (Acts 18:4) There was also a constant flow of travelers and merchants, besides those seeking pleasure at this entertainment and athletic center. Doubtless this contributed to a more broad-minded attitude than that prevailing in other cities visited by the apostle, including Athens, the center of Greek culture. Paul received a vision assuring him that Corinth contained many righteously disposed persons and so he spent a year and six months at this strategic meeting place of the East and the West. (Acts 18:9-11) During this time he likely wrote his two letters to the Thessalonians.
CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION
Paul’s associates in tentmaking and fellow Christians, Aquila and Priscilla, went with him when he finally sailed from the eastern port of Cenchreae heading across the Aegean Sea to Ephesus in Asia Minor. (Acts 18:18, 19) Eloquent Apollos, however, followed up Paul’s activity, watering the seeds sown in Corinth. (Acts 18:24-28; 19:1; 1 Cor. 3:6) Paul showed deep concern for the congregation he had formed in Corinth, dispatching Titus to represent him there on two visits, as well as writing his two weighty letters to the Corinthian congregation. (2 Cor. 7:6, 7, 13; 8:6, 16, 17; 12:17, 18) Unable to make a planned stopover visit with them in transit to Macedonia (2 Cor. 1:15, 16, 23), Paul, nevertheless, did spend three months in Greece later on, probably in 55-56 C.E., and spent part of the time in Corinth, writing his letter to the Romans from there.—Acts 20:2, 3; Rom. 16:1, 23; 1 Cor. 1:14; see CORINTHIANS, LETTERS TO THE.
-
-
Corinthians, Letters to theAid to Bible Understanding
-
-
CORINTHIANS, LETTERS TO THE
Two inspired canonical letters written by the apostle Paul to the Christians in Greece during the first century C. E. The letters stand in seventh and eighth places, respectively, in most English versions of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Paul identifies himself as the writer of both letters, addressing First Corinthians to “the congregation of God that is in Corinth,” and Second Corinthians to “the congregation of God that is in Corinth, together with all the holy ones who are in all of Achaia.”—1 Cor. 1:1, 2; 2 Cor. 1:1.
That Paul did indeed write First and Second Corinthians cannot be seriously questioned. In addition to the apostle’s own testimony, the authenticity and general acceptance of both letters are attested by external testimony. The two letters are ascribed to Paul by prominent writers of the first to the third centuries. Also, what is known as “The Canon of Athanasius” (367 C.E.) lists, among “fourteen letters of Paul the apostle,” “two to the Corinthians.” This list is the first example of the catalogue of books of the Christian Greek Scriptures as we have them today, preceding by thirty years the list published by the Council or Synod of Carthage, Africa, in 397 C.E.
CORINTH, AND PAUL’S MINISTRY THERE
In the days of Paul, Corinth was a great commercial center, known for its wealth, as well as being the capital of Achaia. (See CORINTH.) Gross immorality was practiced there, and it once even affected the Christian congregation in that city, the apostle finding it necessary to rebuke the congregation because among them arose a case of “such fornication as is not even among the nations,” for a certain man had taken his father’s wife. (1 Cor. 5:1-5) Corinth was noted for the splendor of its public buildings, theaters, temples and images of false gods and goddesses. According to the Greek geographer Strabo (who lived perhaps between 63 B.C.E. and 24 C.E.), there were no fewer than a thousand prostitutes or courtesans to be found at the temple of Aphrodite. In public prayers, the gods were petitioned to multiply the number of the city’s prostitutes.
The Isthmian Games were held on the isthmus where Corinth was situated. Being acquainted with such athletic contests, the Corinthian Christians would well appreciate Paul’s encouragement to run the Christian race with determination, the apostle informing them: “The way I am running is not uncertainly; the way I am directing my blows is so as not to be striking the air.”—1 Cor. 9:24-27.
Paul arrived in Corinth about 50 C.E. Initially he gave a talk in the synagogue every sabbath “and would persuade Jews and Greeks,” the Greeks in this case evidently being proselytes to the Jews’ religion. (Acts 18:1-4) However, after encountering opposition and abusive speech among those in the synagogue, the apostle turned his attention to “people of the nations,” the Gentiles in Corinth, and many “began to believe and be baptized.” Told by the Lord in a vision, “I have many people in this city,” the apostle remained there for a year and six months “teaching among them the word of God.” (Acts 18:5-11) Because Paul had been instrumental in establishing a Christian congregation in Corinth, he could say to them: “Though you may have ten thousand tutors in Christ, you certainly do not have many fathers; for in Christ Jesus I have become your father through the good news.”—1 Cor. 4:15.
FIRST CORINTHIANS
Time and place, and reasons for writing
During his third missionary tour Paul spent some time in Ephesus. (Acts 19:1) Probably during the last year of his stay there, the apostle received disturbing news about conditions in the Corinthian congregation. Paul had been told “by those of the house of Chloe” that dissensions existed among the Corinthians. (1 Cor. 1:11) Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus had also come from Corinth and may have provided some information about the situation there. (1 Cor. 16:17, 18) Also, Paul had received a letter of inquiry from the Christian congregation in Corinth. (1 Cor. 7:1) Hence, out of deep regard for the spiritual welfare of his fellow believers there, Paul wrote this first letter to the Christian congregation in Corinth, about 55 C.E. That Ephesus was the place of composition is made certain by Paul’s words recorded at 1 Corinthians 16:8: “But I am remaining in Ephesus until the festival of Pentecost.”
In the introduction to First Corinthians Paul mentions an associate, Sosthenes, who may have penned the letter as dictated by Paul. This is likely, since toward its conclusion we read: “Here is my greeting, Paul’s, in my own hand.”—1 Cor. 1:1; 16:21.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS
I. Encouragement (1:1-9)
II. Exhortation to unity (1:10–4:21)
A. Following men is foolish worldly wisdom, brings divisions (1:10-21)
B. Boast in God, who supplies all things through Christ, not in men (1:22–4:21)
1. Wisdom of God taught to holy ones by God’s spirit (chap. 2)
2. Spiritual building work to be tested, inferior work destroyed (chap. 3)
3. God’s dealing with apostles as “subordinates of Christ” reveals foolishness of being puffed up with worldly wisdom (chap. 4)
III. Cleaning out immorality (5:1–6:20)
A. Expelling the incestuous man (5:1-13)
B. Brother should not take brother to worldly court (6:1-8)
C. Spiritual or moral uncleanness defiles God’s temple, prevents entering Kingdom (6:9-20)
1. Fornication makes member of Christ’s body one flesh with harlot
2. Fornication a sin against one’s body
IV. Marriage and singleness (7:1-40)
A. Sexual due of marriage to be rendered, but with consideration (7:1-7)
B. Marriage better course if passion inflames one (7:8, 9)
C. Christian not to depart from unbelieving mate (7:10-16)
1. Family merit to mate and children
2. May eventually help mate to accept truth
D. Not necessary to change one’s status when becoming Christian (7:17-35)
1. Circumcised or uncircumcised, single or married, free or slave
2. Remaining single gives more freedom for full devotion to God
E. Proper to marry, but marry “only in the Lord” (7:36-40)
V. Consideration for conscience and circumstances of brothers (8:1–10:33)
A. Love superior to knowledge (8:1-3)
B. Matter of eating food offered to idols (8:4-13)
C. Right of minister to receive material help; Paul did not exercise this right (9:1-27)
D. Warning against complacency, immorality, idolatry (10:1-22)
E. All things lawful, but not all things build up (10:23-33)
VI. Congregational order (11:1–14:40)
A. Headship (11:1-16)
B. Lord’s evening meal (11:17-34)
C. Gifts of the spirit (12:1-31)
D. The surpassing way of love (13:1-13)
E. Decency and arrangement in congregational meetings (14:1-40)
VII. The resurrection (15:1-58)
A. Christ’s resurrection a guarantee (15:1-34)
B. The physical body and the spiritual body (15:35-49)
C. Immortality and incorruption (15:50-58)
VIII. General exhortation, salutations, commendation of faithful brothers (16:1-24)
SECOND CORINTHIANS
Time and place of writing
Paul wrote his second letter to the Corinthians probably during the late summer or early autumn of 55 C.E. The apostle had written the first letter in Ephesus, where he probably stayed as planned, until Pentecost of that year, or longer. (1 Cor. 16:8) Paul then departed for Troas, where he was disappointed in not meeting Titus, who had been sent to Corinth to assist in the collection for the holy ones in Judea. So Paul proceeded to Macedonia, where Titus joined him with a report on the Corinthians’ reaction to his first letter. (2 Cor. 2:12, 13; 7:5-7) Paul then wrote the second letter to them from Macedonia, evidently dispatching it by the hand of Titus. Then, after a few months, his efforts to visit Corinth materialized. So Paul actually visited the Corinthians twice. After his first visit, at which time he established the congregation, he made a plan for a second visit, which failed. But “the third time” that he planned or got “ready” he was successful, for he was able to see them again in 56 C.E. (2 Cor. 1:15; 12:14; 13:1) During this second visit in Corinth he wrote his letter to the Romans.
Reasons for writing
Titus brought Paul a favorable report. The first letter to the Corinthians had awakened in them sadness in a godly way, repentance, earnestness, a desire to clear themselves, indignation fear and a righting of the wrong. Paul responded in his second letter commending them for their favorable reception and application of counsel, urging them to “kindly forgive and comfort” the repentant man they had evidently expelled from the congregation. (2 Cor. 7:8-12; 2:1-11; compare 1 Corinthians 5:1-5.) Paul also wanted to encourage them to proceed further with the relief work for their needy fellow believers in Judea. (2 Cor. 8:1-15) Then, too, there were persons in the congregation who continued to challenge Paul’s position and authority as an apostle,
-