Umbhalo We-cuneiform Wasendulo NeBhayibheli
NGEMVA kokuphanjaniswa kwezilimi zabantu eBhabhele, kwasungulwa izindlela zokubhala ezihlukahlukene. Abantu abahlala eMesophothamiya, njengamaSumer nabaseBhabhiloni, babesebenzisa indlela yokubhala okuthiwa i-cuneiform. Elithi cuneiform livela kwelesiLatini elisho umlobo “onxantathu” futhi libhekisela ezimpawini ezingonxantathu ezazenziwa usiba lokuloba olucijile okwakubhalwa ngalo obumbeni olumanzi.
Abavubukuli baye bathola imibhalo ye-cuneiform ekhuluma ngabantu nangezenzakalo okukhulunywa ngazo nasemiBhalweni. Yini esiyaziyo ngale ndlela yasendulo yokubhala? Inikeza buphi ubufakazi bokuthi iBhayibheli linokwethenjelwa?
Imibhalo Eyalondolozwa Isikhathi Eside
Izazi zikholelwa ukuthi ekuqaleni abantu baseMesophothamiya babesebenzisa imifanekiso lapho bebhala, bedweba izimpawu noma izithombe ezimelela igama noma umqondo othile. Ngokwesibonelo, ekuqaleni uphawu lwenkunzi lwalufana nenhloko yenkunzi. Njengoba isidingo sokugcina imilando sasikhula, kwasungulwa indlela yokubhala nge-cuneiform. I-NIV Archaeological Study Bible iyachaza: “Izimpawu zazingasameleli amagama nje kuphela, kodwa namalunga akha igama, ayengahlanganiswa ukuze akhe igama.” Ekugcineni, izimpawu ezihlukahlukene ezingaba ngu-200 zenza le ndlela yokubhala yakwazi “ukuyimelela ngempela inkulumo, nalo lonke iqoqo lamagama ayinkimbinkimbi nohlelo lolimi.”
Ngosuku luka-Abrahama, cishe ngo-2 000 B.C.E., ukubhala nge-cuneiform kwase kuthuthuke kakhulu. Emakhulwini eminyaka engu-20 eyalandela, izilimi ezingaba ngu-15 zasebenzisa le ndlela yokubhala. Imibhalo ye-cuneiform etholakele engamaphesenti angaphezu kuka-99, yayibhalwe ezibhebheni zobumba. Phakathi neminyaka engu-150 edlule, kuye kwatholakala inqwaba yezibhebhe ezinjalo e-Uri, e-Uruk, eBhabhiloni, eNimrud, eNippur, e-Ashur, eNineve, eMari, e-Ebla, e-Ugarit nase-Amarna. Incwadi ethi Archaeology Odyssey ithi: “Izazi zilinganisela ukuthi kuye kwavubukulwa izibhebhe ezinemibhalo ye-cuneiform esukela esigidini esisodwa kuya kwezimbili, futhi kusatholwa ezicishe zibe ngu-25 000 njalo ngonyaka.”
Izazi zombhalo we-cuneiform zinomsebenzi omkhulu wokuhumusha. Abanye balinganisela ukuthi “namuhla yingxenye eyodwa kweziyishumi zemibhalo ye-cuneiform esekhona esafundiwe ngisho noma kukanye.”
Ukutholakala kwemibhalo ye-cuneiform ebhalwe ngezilimi ezimbili nebhalwe ngezintathu kwaba isihluthulelo sokuqonda umbhalo we-cuneiform. Izazi zaqonda ukuthi le mibhalo yayinezinto ezifanayo ngezilimi ezingafani, yonke ibhalwe nge-cuneiform. Okwasiza izazi ziqonde okwakubhaliwe, kwaba ukuqaphela ukuthi amagama, iziqu, izinhlu zozalo zababusi ngisho nezinkulumo zokuziphakamisa kwakuvame ukuphindwa.
Ngawo-1850, izazi zase zikwazi ukufunda ulimi oluyingxube olwalusetshenziswa abantu baseMpumalanga Ephakathi yasendulo, isi-Akkad noma ulimi oluxube olwase-Asiriya nolwaseBhabhiloni, olwalubhalwe nge-cuneiform. I-Encyclopædia Britannica iyachaza: “Kwathi lapho sebekwazi ukufunda isi-Akkad, bakwazi ukuqonda yonke into, futhi kwase kutholakele indlela yokuhumusha ezinye izilimi ezibhalwe nge-cuneiform.” Le mibhalo ihlobana kanjani neBhayibheli?
Ubufakazi Obuvumelana NeBhayibheli
IBhayibheli lithi iJerusalema lalibuswa amakhosi aseKhanani kwaze kwaba yilapho uDavide elinqoba cishe ngo-1070 B.C.E. (Josh. 10:1; 2 Sam. 5:4-9) Kodwa ezinye izazi zazikungabaza lokhu. Nokho, ngo-1887 owesifazane ongumlimi wathola isibhebhe sobumba e-Amarna, eGibhithe. Kwagcina kutholakale lapho imibhalo engaba ngu-380, eyayiyizincwadi ababusi baseGibhithe (u-Amenhotep III no-Akhenaton) nabaseKhanani ababhalelana zona. Izincwadi eziyisithupha zazivela ku-‘Abdi-Heba, umbusi waseJerusalema.
I-Biblical Archaeology Review ithi: “Ukukhuluma kwezibhebhe zase-Amarna ngeJerusalema njengomuzi, hhayi indawo nje, nangesikhundla sika-‘Abdi-Heba . . . njengombusi owayenesigodlo namasosha aseGibhithe angu-50 ayekanise eJerusalema, kusikisela ukuthi iJerusalema lalingumbuso omncane osentabeni.” Kamuva lona leli phepha-bhuku lathi: “Singaqiniseka ngokusekelwe kulokho okushiwo ezincwadini zase-Amarna, ukuthi kwakukhona umuzi owawubalulekile ngesikhathi sawo lapho.”
Amagama Emibhalweni Yase-Asiriya NeyaseBhabhiloni
Abase-Asiriya, futhi kamuva abaseBhabhiloni, babhala umlando wabo ezibhebheni zobumba, nasezintweni zokubhalela ezimise okomphongolo nonxantathu nasezikhumbuzweni zamatshe. Ngakho, kwathi lapho izazi ziqala ukukwazi ukufunda umbhalo we-cuneiform yesi-Akkad, zathola ukuthi le mibhalo ikhuluma ngabantu okukhulunywa ngabo naseBhayibhelini.
Incwadi ethi The Bible in the British Museum ithi: “Ekhuluma ngo-1870 ne-Society of Biblical Archaeology eyayisanda kumiswa, uDkt. Samuel Birch wakwazi ukubonisa [emibhalweni ye-cuneiform] amagama amakhosi angamaHebheru u-Omri, u-Ahabi, uJehu, u-Azariya . . . , uMenahemu, uPheka, uHosheya, uHezekiya noManase, amakhosi ase-Asiriya uThigilati-Phileseri . . . [III], uSarigoni, uSaneheribi, u-Esarihadoni no-Ashur-banipal, . . . nawaseSiriya uBhenihadadi, uHazayeli noRezini.”
Incwadi ethi The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating iqhathanisa umlando weBhayibheli ka-Israyeli noJuda nemibhalo ye-cuneiform yasendulo. Itholani? “Sekukonke, kuvela amakhosi akwaJuda nawakwa-Israyeli angu-15 noma angu-16 emibhalweni yezinye izizwe futhi amagama awo nenkathi aphila ngayo kuvumelana ngokuphelele [nencwadi yeBhayibheli] yamaKhosi. Ayikho neyodwa inkosi ebhalwe endaweni engafanele, futhi imibhalo yezinye izizwe ayikhulumi ngamakhosi angekho encwadini yamaKhosi.”
Omunye umbhalo we-cuneiform odumile owatholwa ngo-1879, obizwa ngokuthi uMbhalo KaKoresi, ubika ukuthi ngemva kokuba enqobe iBhabhiloni ngo-539 B.C.E., uKoresi waqala umgomo wakhe wokubuyisela izithunjwa emazweni azo. AmaJuda aphakathi kwalabo abazuza kulokhu. (Ezra 1:1-4) Izazi eziningi zekhulu le-19 zazikungabaza ukuba iqiniso kwalesi simemezelo esicashunwe eBhayibhelini. Nokho, imibhalo ye-cuneiform yangenkathi yamaPheresiya kuhlanganise noMbhalo KaKoresi, inikeza ubufakazi obuqand’ ikhanda bokuthi umlando weBhayibheli unembile.
Ngo-1883 kwatholakala umtapo wemibhalo ye-cuneiform engaphezu kuka-700 eNippur, eduze kwaseBhabhiloni. Phakathi kwamagama angu-2 500 atholakala kuwo, angaba ngu-70 awamaJuda. Isazi-mlando u-Edwin Yamauchi, sithi ayevela “njengabantu abenza izivumelwano, amanxusa, ofakazi, abaqoqi bentela nezikhulu zasebukhosini.” Buyaphawuleka ubufakazi bokuthi amaJuda aqhubeka enza imisebenzi enjalo eduze kwaseBhabhiloni ngale nkathi. Buqinisekisa lokho okwashiwo esiprofethweni seBhayibheli ukuthi nakuba “insali” yama-Israyeli yabuyela kwaJuda ivela ekuthunjweni e-Asiriya naseBhabhiloni, amaningi awazange agoduke.—Isaya 10:21, 22.
Phakathi nenkulungwane yokuqala yeminyaka B.C.E., kwakusetshenziswa kokubili ukubhala nge-cuneiform nokubhala ngezinhlamvu. Kodwa abase-Asiriya nabaseBhabhiloni bagcina bekuyekile ukubhala nge-cuneiform bakhetha ukubhala ngezinhlamvu.
Kusenamakhulu ezinkulungwane zezibhebhe ezigcinwe eminyuziyamu okusadingeka ukuba zihlolwe. Lezo izazi esezizifundile zinikeza ubufakazi obuhle bokwethembeka kweBhayibheli. Kwazi bani ukuthi yibuphi obunye ubufakazi obengeziwe imibhalo engakafundwa esazobuveza?
[Umthombo Wesithombe ekhasini 21]
Photograph taken by courtesy of the British Museum