Typesetting Speeds Up

By “Awake!” correspondent in South Africa

THE printed word is a permanent record of the spoken word. For that reason it is important. Understandably, it has become a part of our way of life. But just how is the printed word put together? You may have tinkered with a rubber-type kit at some time and, besides learning to mind your “p’s” and “q’s,” you probably have some idea of what type is and how the image is transferred to paper. The composing of type is a graphic art called typesetting. Because people are concerned mainly with the end product​—the printed page—​few are aware of the dramatic change that has taken place in this field in recent years.

Consider for a moment the page you are now reading. Notice how the type is set out in two columns; each line is exactly the same length and is aligned on a common base line. The overall effect of the page is an even-gray tone without blotches or black areas. This is the result of many years of refining and effort on the part of typographers, who have endeavored to produce text that is easily readable but not tiring or distracting to the eye.

The printing methods of today contrast sharply with the painstaking efforts required for type composition in years past. Before movable type came into existence in the fifteenth century, printing methods were inflexible and crude. For any practical purpose, duplication of a document had to be done by hand. One can only marvel at the scrupulous care and fidelity of the copyists in producing such works as the Alexandrine, Vatican, Sinaitic and other manuscripts of the Bible.

As the need for multiple copies developed, the concept of individual-letter type arose. This was more flexible and practical than the laboriously hand-carved wooden blocks containing an entire page or a section of one. The first known movable type was the invention of a Chinese alchemist of the eleventh century, who used a mixture of clay and glue, hardened by drying. But the process did not become widely used. The invention of a movable type that really came into practical use is generally attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, in Germany, about 1450 C.E. The printer could now assemble pages without great difficulty from cases of type blocks, and each letter was reusable. Though a slow process, founders’ type, as it is generally known, is still used by many printers.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century the need for a faster and more economical method of typesetting became urgent. An answer to this problem was provided by Ottmar Mergenthaler, who developed a fully automatic machine capable of casting an entire line of metal type from small brass molds that were assembled by means of a keyboard. Known as “Linotype,” this machine was acclaimed as the long-awaited answer for printers and publishers. Today improved versions of the Linotype are used throughout the world. Awake! is among many publications typeset in this way.

Though the Linotype was adequate for immediate needs, other successful typesetting machines made their appearance. Notable among these is the Monotype machine, which, as the name suggests, casts individual characters in metal type. Printers hold this machine in high esteem, as it is capable of producing type of superior quality and is especially suitable for intricate work.

Typecasting machines offer an advantage in that they are relatively simple in construction. They can be maintained by small establishments. After each use, the metal type is melted down and recycled.

However, in recent years a number of developments have caused many printers and publishers to take another serious look at the requirements of typesetting. What are these factors?

First, it was realized that the concept of metal type has an inherent disadvantage. It is inseparably bound by mechanical limitations. The casting of molten metal cannot be hastened beyond a point. Furthermore, the weight and physical nature of the type set limitations that, in turn, affect speed. Since the type is not the end product, it was argued, Could it not be dispensed with altogether? Was there not a more direct way to print? The realization of this possibility would, not only liberate the printer from the three-dimensional and mechanical restrictions, but open up to him the possibilities of utilizing other principles, such as light, magnetism and modern electronics.

About the middle of this twentieth century the climate was favorable for a change. The slowness of the typesetting process made it hard for printers to meet rapidly increasing demands. Problems were being experienced in obtaining skilled craftsmen, and strikes by militant workers did not improve the situation. On the other hand, photographic technology had increased to the point where it was possible to make etched plates from plastic or metal. These could be wrapped around the cylinders of conventional printing presses and used in a number of ways.

Furthermore, many printers found that, because of expansion, floor space was at a premium. Thousands of tons of printer’s metal lay tied up in pages of type, stored for future use. In many instances the factories covered the full limit of ground available. Might the solution to this problem not lie in expanding within the existing shell? The search for the answer pointed to the development and combining of two techniques, namely, the printing processes of lithography and phototypesetting. This is a natural marriage, as neither requires metal type and both are photographic by nature.

It was this realization that caused a flood of ideas, patents and machines to appear on the market. One survey showed that early in 1970 there were no fewer than 80 different photosetting machines on review. Caution in buying was justified, because newer and better models made their appearance with alarming regularity. Rather than purchasing a machine that would be outdated within a few months, many printers took a “wait and see” attitude, realizing, nevertheless, that a change was inevitable in the future. Andrew Bluhm, in his book Typesetting, summed up the position as follows:

“The pace of technological progress is now so rapid that printers and manufacturers are obliged to develop new methods and machines when their existing ones have scarcely had time to be introduced on a profitable scale and it’s all too often true to say, ‘if it works, it’s obsolete.’”

Despite the measure of uncertainty, one thing seemed clear: photosetting had made its mark and was there to stay.

Attractive features of phototypesetting systems are that they save both labor and time. Monotonous tasks and routine decisions are typically taken over by a minicomputer. The text is set on a keyboard, frequently without regard to line endings or hyphenation, simply indicating the typeface and size to be used and how long the lines should be. The composition computer then takes over, automatically composing lines to be typeset and generating commands necessary to drive the photosetter. The text must originate at a keyboard, however. No photosetter or computer can assume this basic function, nor can either one make up for inaccurate entry of the text on the keyboard. Human hands are still the initiating force.

To eliminate duplication of effort, since the keyboard operator usually copies already-typed material, machines such as the Optical Character Recognition (O.C.R.) units have been developed. These are capable of “reading” certain typewritten copy and translating it to a form that a computer can digest​—usually from punched or magnetic tape. On the output side of the picture, the speed of the photosetters can be unbelievably high in relation to the fair rate of about two characters per second on a Linotype. Sophisticated photosetters are theoretically capable of setting as many as 10,000 characters per second, and speeds of 8,000 per second are commercially available. For good measure, they will also reproduce pictures!

Early in the race to compete with metal typesetters were the “strike-on” systems​—so named because they operate much like a typewriter “striking” the image through a carbon ribbon onto paper. Though potentially efficient, especially when operated by computer, some systems are subject to rapid wear. This can have no small bearing on the quality of the type produced. Nevertheless, this is a very popular method of typesetting and is used extensively in the producing of newspapers and periodicals.

First-Generation Photosetters

As printers became more and more aware of phototypesetting, manufacturers intensified their interest in producing a machine that could set a type image efficiently, speedily and with knife-edge quality. Foremost among these manufacturers were the regular makers of type-metal casting machines. A number of successful photosetters were produced that closely resembled their “hot metal” counterparts. For this reason they are referred to as first-generation photosetters. Instead of molds and molten metal, the machines were equipped with film and image-bearing templates or matrices, as they are referred to. Though capable of setting type of good quality, these machines achieved no real advantage in speed. In most instances, they are operated directly from a keyboard and are limited to the speed of the operator. Swiftness was yet to come.

Second-Generation Photosetters

A distinguishing feature of the next generation of photosetters is the swing farther away from mechanical principles and the centering of emphasis on electro-optical technology. Also, because of the high setting speed, which may vary from 20 to 40 characters per second, a number of independent keyboards are required to generate enough text input to drive the machines efficiently.

Though varying considerably in approach, in the main these photosetters operate by projecting a filmed image of each character individually through lenses, after which it is flashed into position on a film, or on bromide paper.

Whatever the design, the heart of the mechanism lies in the matrix or image carrier. One system, for example, has eight complete typefaces located along the rim of a glass disk. As the disk revolves at high speed the light source flashes the image of the individual characters along a system of mirrors to a revolving turret containing lenses, where they are enlarged to the typographer’s preference. The same character can be reproduced in any of 16 sizes!

Other designers have located the light source within a revolving drum, the typefaces being located on the drum’s surface. As the drum spins, light is flashed through the characters on the drum’s walls and into the lenses. One ultrafast system is designed much like the honeycomb of a beehive. Each character, located within a grid, has an independent light source. Physical movement is kept to an absolute minimum. An advantage of optical systems is that the photo images of the letters are not subject to wear and tear as are the matrices of metal casting machines. Another advancement has been realized with the introduction of more flexible minicomputers. Instead of utilizing a computer system that is rigidly made to perform a present function, the computer’s capacity can now be used in a variety of applications by simply running a small program tape through the memory.

In this way, a computer with a small capacity can be used to its maximum advantage. In addition, the number of key strokes can be reduced by storing, in the computer’s memory, the routine instructions and even repetitious words, phrases and portions of the text of the material to be printed.

Third-Generation Photosetters

On a much larger scale, a third generation of machines has been developed. They are classified in this group because of the absence of almost all mechanical principles. Unlike second-generation setters that carry the image of the letters in a grid, or a rotating drum or disk, the characters are now recorded in digital form in a computer’s memory. This will allow access to thousands of characters at any one time, and at astounding speeds. When recalled, this information is amplified and converted to a visual type-image on a cathode-ray tube or screen, where it is photographed. Not dependent on visual origin, by electronic manipulation the type can be enlarged, expanded or condensed​—even slanted into a pseudoitalic!

It is appropriate to ask, Has this brought the printer and publisher all the benefits they have sought? Admittedly it has done a great deal. It has been claimed that, in addition to increasing the typesetting capacity, about 40 to 50 percent of the existing floor space has been retrieved. Tons of idle printing metal have been released and the new equipment is about one eighth to one tenth the weight of equivalent “hot metal” machines. Also, the composing room has changed. A gloomy atmosphere has been changed into an officelike environment that is relatively noise free.

On the other hand, it has come at a price. Phototypesetters are not self-maintaining. Costs of materials and equipment escalate in proportion to the increased expansion and output. A breakdown with computerized equipment can be disastrous. Unlike the linecasting setters, which are usually maintained locally, technicians are required to handle even minor faults. To avert such disruptions, some printers have found it necessary to invest in backup equipment, which, with the high rate of obsolescence, has caused a situation where there is an overequipped potential when it is least desired. Many printers reason that they must accept the situation in order to stay in the race.

Whereas it is due to commercial pressure that many of these advancements in typesetting have been brought about, it is significant that they utilize laws and principles that already exist. Light, magnetism and the finest data storage systems are to be found throughout creation. After all, man can only copy and make application of the principles that the Creator himself has established.

[Diagram on page 7]

(For fully formatted text, see publication)

Light source

Matrix type image

Lens

Film or bromide paper