Clues to the Mystery of the Iceman

FOR centuries, Ötzi was in a good resting-​place. He lay over 10,500 feet [3,200 m] above sea level in a narrow, snow-​filled ravine in a hollow that protected him from the movements of the nearby glacier. If his body had been frozen into the glacial ice mass, it would have been completely broken up and swept away. Very likely, his sheltered position preserved him intact.

Within a few yards [meters] of the body were objects that had apparently been a part of his everyday life: an unstrung yew-wood bow, a buckskin quiver with 14 arrows (2 ready for use, the others still to be finished), a flint-​bladed dagger, an ax, an object that is thought to be the frame for a primitive pack, a leather bag, a birch-​bark receptacle, and fragments of clothing, as well as other utensils and objects.

When he was found, Similaun Man (another of his names) was still wearing some of his articles of clothing and had on leather footwear stuffed with straw for protection from the cold. Near his head lay a “mat” of woven straw. It was as though, overcome by tiredness and the cold one evening, the Iceman fell tranquilly asleep only to “see” the light of day thousands of years later. The find was “a snapshot of an epoch, of a society and a biological population,” says archaeologist Francesco Fedele, who defined the Similaun Man as “a time capsule.”

How Was He Preserved?

Not all agree on the way Ötzi was preserved intact for so long in those conditions. “His preservation is little short of miraculous, even allowing for the alleged protection from the depression in which he was found,” says Nature. The theory that is currently thought to be the most plausible is that preservation occurred because of a combination of “three improbable events”: (1) a rapid process of natural mummification (dehydration), the result of the effects of the cold, the sun, and the foehn (a warm, dry wind); (2) a quick coverage by snow that hid the body from predators; and (3) the protection from moving glaciers afforded by the depression. Some, however, do not find even this explanation convincing, affirming that the foehn does not reach so high in this part of the Alps.

Some things about the Iceman are certain, however. It has been possible to ascertain that he was between 25 and 40 years of age, was about five feet two inches [160 cm] tall, and weighed about 110 pounds [50 kg]. He was wiry and muscular, and his brown hair was well cared for and was apparently cut regularly. Recent DNA studies of tissue samples have established that he belonged to the same gene pool as contemporary central and northern European inhabitants. His worn teeth reveal that he ate coarse bread, suggesting that he may have belonged to an agricultural community, as evidenced by the grains of wheat found in his clothing. Interestingly, it has been possible to determine that he died toward the end of summer or the beginning of autumn. How? In his bag were found the remains of a variety of wild plum that ripens in late summer; perhaps, they were a part of his last supplies.

“A Medieval Cavalier Carrying a Rifle”

But what does Ötzi reveal? The Italian journal Archeo summarized a number of questions raised by the discovery in this way: “Was he a warrior or a hunter? Was he an isolated individual, was he traveling with his group, or again, was he in transit on those mountains in the company of a small select part of his group? . . . Was he alone, surrounded by all that ice, or can we expect other presences?” Scholars have sought to ascertain the answers mainly through examination of the objects found on Mount Similaun and attempts to decipher their meaning. Various theories as to why Ötzi found himself at an elevation of more than 10,500 feet [3,200 meters] have been suggested, but each one of them is contradicted by some other detail. Let’s consider a few examples.

The bow, which had never been strung, and the arrows would immediately suggest that he was a hunter. Does that resolve the enigma? Perhaps, but the bow, with a length of nearly six feet [1.8 m], “was very big for a man of his stature,” says archaeologist Christopher Bergman, and “decidedly oversized to hunt typical Alpine game.” Why would he have a bow that he could not use? Furthermore, a person traveling in the mountains needs to shed all excess weight, “which makes it particularly puzzling that the man’s bow and 12 of his 14 arrows were unfinished, whereas his other weapons (dagger and axe) were worn by prolonged use,” observes Nature.

What about the ax that was found just a few yards [meters] away? At first, it was thought to be bronze, but tests revealed that, in reality, it was made of copper. For this and other reasons, many archaeologists are inclined to date Ötzi back to the beginning of the so-​called Copper Age, that is, the fourth-​third millennium B.C.E. “Carbon 14 tests . . . confirmed that he had lived between 4,800 and 5,500 years ago,” stated the magazine Audubon.a Other objects, however, would tend to persuade some experts to place the Iceman in a slightly older period. Apparently, it is not possible to assign Similaun Man to a particular ancient civilization. Referring to the copper ax, one archaeologist believes that Ötzi “possessed a weapon that was too technologically advanced for the epoch in which he lived. It was as though we had found a medieval cavalier carrying a rifle. In fact, in that epoch, copper was known only in Oriental cultures.”

Further, as we have already seen, the ax could have been a very precious object among the Iceman’s contemporaries. Other artifacts, such as the sheath for his dagger, were also extremely refined and were evidently “objects of prestige.” But if Ötzi was a high-​ranking personage, a chief, why was he alone at the time of his death?

According to Popular Science magazine, Konrad Spindler, of the University of Innsbruck, opined: “What were originally thought to be enigmatic tattoos correspond exactly to worn knee and ankle joints and degenerating vertebrae in his spine. The Iceman’s doctor probably treated the condition by branding the skin above the aching area, then rubbing herb ash into the wound.”

Recently, the idea was advanced, in a meeting of forensic medical experts in Chicago, that Ötzi may have been a beaten and bloodied fugitive who died in hiding while others hunted him. It has been determined that he had several broken ribs and a fractured jaw. However, it cannot be said exactly when he suffered these injuries​—before or after death. If he had been the victim of violence, though, “why did he still have all his implements, even ‘precious’ ones?” such as the copper ax, asks Archeo.

The investigators reckon that the facts available are not sufficient to complete the picture, and many questions still remain unanswered. But it is clear that the civilization Ötzi belonged to was highly structured and complex.

Ötzi and His World

In describing Similaun Man’s world, scholars base their opinions on finds from Alpine sites that are thought to have been inhabited by his contemporaries. Even then, archaeologists tell us, some areas were more developed than others, and most technical innovations, such as working in copper, originated in the Middle East.

According to one reconstruction, Ötzi may have lived in one of the agricultural villages of the Adige River basin. This river was an important trade route connecting the Italic Peninsula with Central Europe. A number of settlements have been found in various places in that part of the Alps, even at an altitude of some 6,500 feet [2,000 m]. Agricultural villages of the period were typically made up of three or four houses, perhaps a few dozen at most. What kind of houses? Excavations have brought to light only the floors, almost always of beaten earth. The dwellings had a single room, generally with a hearth in the center and sometimes an oven. The roof may have been gabled, similar to contemporary dwellings built on piles that were found close to a number of Alpine lakes. Every single-​room hut probably accommodated one family unit.

What kind of contacts were there between such communities of livestock raisers and farmers? Undoubtedly, trade. For example, the ax found on Mount Similaun was similar to those manufactured farther south, on the shores of Lake Garda, and may have been the object of a commercial transaction. Also among Ötzi’s equipment were some flints, objects precious in trade along the Adige Valley route. One of the activities that necessitated larger-​scale movements was the seasonal migration of livestock. As they still do in the Tirol today, shepherds led their flocks over Alpine passes in search of fresh pastures. What other conclusions have been reached on the Iceman’s origin?

[Footnotes]

[Map on page 5]

(For fully formatted text, see publication)

The Iceman was found just inside the Italian border on the Similaun Glacier

GERMANY

AUSTRIA

Innsbruck

SWITZERLAND

SLOVENIA

ITALY

Bolzano

Similaun Glacier

Adriatic Sea

[Pictures on page 7]

X marks the spot where Ötzi was found. Insets: 1. Copper ax, 2. Flint dagger, 3. Possibly an amulet, 4. Antler point in wood handle

[Credit Lines]

Foto: Prof. Dr. Gernot Patzelt/​Innsbruck

Fotos 1-4: Archiv Österreichischer Alpenverein/​Innsbruck, S.N.S. Pressebild GmbH