It was a Philistine city in the time of Samson and of Samuel. (Judg. 14:19; 1 Sam. 6:17) David mentions it in his lament over the death of Saul and Jonathan. (2 Sam. 1:20) In King Uzziah’s conquest of Philistine cities, Ashkelon is not listed as among those taken.—2 Chron. 26:6.

In the prophecy of Amos (about 803 B.C.E.) prediction was made of defeat for the ruler of Ashkelon. (Amos 1:8) Secular history shows that in the succeeding century Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria made Asqalluna (Ashkelon) a vassal city. Jeremiah (after 647 B.C.E.) uttered two prophecies involving Ashkelon. While Jeremiah 47:2-7 could have seen some fulfillment when Nebuchadnezzar sacked the city early in his reign (c. 624 B.C.E.), yet the prophecy at Jeremiah 25:17-20, 28, 29 clearly indicates a fulfillment subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. Zephaniah’s prophecy (written before 648 B.C.E.) also foretold a coming desolation for Ashkelon, along with other Philistine cities, after which the remnant of Judah would eventually occupy the “houses of Ashkelon.” (Zeph. 2:4-7) Finally, about 518 B.C.E., Zechariah proclaimed doom for Ashkelon in connection with the time of Tyre’s desolation (332 B.C.E.).—Zech. 9:3-5.

Ashkelon was a center of false worship of the goddess Derceto, represented as having the body of a fish. Traditionally, it was the birthplace of Herod the Great and the residence of his sister Salome. Today it is only a desolate site.

ASHKELONITE

(Ashʹke·lon·ite).

A resident of the Philistine city of Ashkelon.—Josh. 13:3; see PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES.

ASHKENAZ

(Ashʹke·naz).

The first named of three sons of Gomer, the son of Japheth.—Gen. 10:3; 1 Chron. 1:6.

Jeremiah 51:27 mentions a kingdom of Ashkenaz as allying itself with the kingdoms of Ararat and Minni against Babylon at the time of her downfall (539 B.C.E.). Since Ararat is believed to have been located in the region of Lake Van in Armenia and Minni (referred to as Mannai in Assyrian inscriptions) is considered to have been SE of Lake Van, it is likely that the kingdom of Ashkenaz lay near these regions, probably somewhat to the N in the area between the Black and Caspian Seas.

The name Ashkenaz is considered by archaeologists as equivalent to the Assyrian Ashguza, which term was evidently applied to the ancient Scythians of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea area. Cuneiform tablets record an alliance between this tribe and the Mannai (Minni) in a revolt against Assyria in the seventh century B.C.E.

In Jewish writings of medieval times (and even thereafter) the term Ashkenaz was applied to the Teutonic race, and more specifically to Germany. Thus, even today Jews from Germanic countries are referred to as Ashkenazim in contrast to the Sephardim, Jews from Spain and Portugal.

ASHNAH

(Ashʹnah) [hard, firm].

1. A town of Judah in the Shephelah mentioned among other cities, including Eshtaol and Zorah. (Josh. 15:33) A tentative identification is the village of ʽAslin, between Eshtaol and Zorah, near the edge of the Judean coastal plain.

2. A second town of Judah, listed among nine cities and evidently farther to the S than the first Ashnah. (Josh. 15:43) The identification is uncertain; a suggested site is Idhna, located about midway between Hebron and Lachish, and about five miles (8 kilometers) from Mareshah, which appears in the same list.

ASHPENAZ

(Ashʹpe·naz).

The chief court official, or, more literally, the master of the eunuchs, in Babylon during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign. (Dan. 1:3) The title in time came to designate a high official in the royal court who doubtless headed the corps of eunuchs but who himself may not have been a eunuch. Such official had as one of his duties the training of youths to serve as pages of the monarch.

ASHTAROTH

(Ashʹta·roth).

A city in the region of Bashan, generally identified today with Tell ʽAshterah about twenty miles (32 kilometers) E of the Sea of Galilee. The low hill there is surrounded by a well-watered plain. Its name would indicate that it was a center of worship of the goddess Ashtoreth or Astarte.

Biblical references to it are principally with regard to giant King Og of Bashan, who is spoken of as reigning “in Ashtaroth, in Edrei.” (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:10; 12:4; 13:12) The conquered territory of Og’s kingdom was originally assigned to the Machirites of the tribe of Manasseh, but Ashtaroth later passed to the Gershonites as a Levitical city. (Josh. 13:29-31; 1 Chron. 6:71) At Joshua 21:27, which corresponds with the account at 1 Chronicles 6:71, the city is called Beeshterah, understood to mean “house of Astarte.”

The city is referred to in Assyrian inscriptions and in the Tell el-Amarna Letters.

ASHTERATHITE

(Ashʹte·rath·ite).

An inhabitant of Ashtaroth. Only Uzzia, one of David’s mighty men, is so designated.—1 Chron. 11:44.

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM

(Ashʹte·roth-kar·naʹim).

The site of the defeat of the Rephaim by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. (Gen. 14:5) Some have supposed it to be the full name for Ashtaroth and that the addition of “karnaim” (horns) refers to the two horns of the crescent moon symbolizing the goddess Astarte, or to twin peaks adjacent to the town. However, it is also suggested that the name means ‘Ashteroth near Karnaim’ and that it thus refers to the city of Ashtaroth with Karnaim being mentioned as a separate but adjacent town. Reference is made to Karnaim during the Maccabean period (1 Maccabees 5:26, 43, 44; 2 Maccabees 12:21, 26), and the site is considered to be located at Sheikh Saʽad, which lies about three miles (5 kilometers) N of Tell ʽAshterah, the generally accepted site of Ashtaroth.—See ASHTAROTH.

Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria makes mention of Qarnini in his conquest of the region, evidently referring to Karnaim.

ASHTORETH

(Ashʹto·reth).

A goddess of the Canaanites, considered to be the wife of Baal. Ashtoreth is often represented as a nude female with rudely exaggerated sex organs. The worship of this goddess was widespread among various peoples of antiquity, and the name “Ashtoreth” was common in one form or another. The Greek name is Astarte. Ashtoreth is thought to be but another manifestation of the ancient Babylonian mother goddess of sensual love, maternity and fertility, and has been linked with Ishtar and similar fertility goddesses.

The worship of Ashtoreth possibly existed in Canaan as early as Abraham’s time, for one of the cities there was called “Ashteroth-karnaim.” (Gen. 14:5) Also mentioned in Scripture is the city of Ashtaroth, the dwelling place of the giant King Og of Bashan. Its name would indicate that this city may have been a center of Ashtoreth worship.—Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:10; 12:4.

The singular form ʽash·toʹreth (Ashtoreth) first appears in the Bible with reference to King Solomon’s apostatizing toward the latter part of his reign. At that time Israelites began worshiping the Ashtoreth of the Sidonians. (1 Ki. 11:5, 33) The only other occurrence of the singular form is in connection with King Josiah’s tearing down the high places that Solomon had built to Ashtoreth and other deities. (2 Ki. 23:13) It has been suggested that the Hebrew form ʽash·toʹreth is probably an artificial combination