precious metals, weaving and engraving. Yet, the record refers to Solomon’s own skilled men, and King Hiram likewise spoke of these and the skilled men of Solomon’s father David. (2 Chron. 2:13, 14) Contrary to the often expressed opinion that “Solomon’s Temple was probably Phoenician in design” (Harper’s Bible Dictionary, p. 44), 1 Chronicles 28:11-19 shows that the architectural plan of the temple and all its features was delivered to Solomon by David, providing “insight for the entire thing in writing from the hand of Jehovah . . . , even for all the works of the architectural plan.” By contrast, unfaithful King Ahaz did become enamored with the pagan altar at Damascus and sent “the design of the altar and its pattern” to priest Urijah to have a copy of it made.—2 Ki. 16:1-12.

King Solomon also made a great ivory throne, overlaid with gold, of unique design, figures of lions standing by the armrests and lining the six steps of approach. (1 Ki. 10:18-20) The extensive use of ivory in the royal palace is indicated at Psalm 45:8. In the northern kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Samaria, ivory carving in furniture, paneling and art objects was apparently popular in the days of King Ahab and thereafter. (1 Ki. 22:39; Amos 3:12, 15; 6:4) Archaeological excavations turned up large quantities of ivory pieces, plaques and panels in what is believed to have been the palace area. Inlaid work of gold, lapis lazuli and glass occur in some pieces. In Megiddo some four hundred ivory pieces were found, including beautifully carved panels and ivory inlaid boxes and gaming boards, estimated as dating from about the twelfth century B.C.E.

In a vision, Ezekiel saw carved representations of reptiles, animals and idols on a wall of the temple area in apostate Jerusalem (Ezek. 8:10), and symbolic Oholibah (representing unfaithful Jerusalem) is spoken of as seeing images of Chaldeans carved on a wall and painted with vermilion, a bright-red pigment.—Ezek. 23:14; compare Jeremiah 22:14.

RELATIONSHIP TO CHRISTIANITY

Paul was a witness of the artistic splendor of Athens, developed around the worship of the Grecian gods and goddesses, and he showed an audience there how illogical it was that humans, owing their life and existence to the true God and Creator, should imagine that “the Divine Being is like gold or silver or stone, like something sculptured by the art and contrivance of man.” (Acts 17:29) He thus demonstrated again that artistic beauty, no matter how impressive or attractive, does not of itself recommend any religion as being true worship.—Compare John 4:23, 24.

There is no record or existing evidence of artwork among the Christians of the first century C.E. It is only during the second and third centuries C.E. that some paintings and sculptures appear in the catacombs attributed to nominal Christians. After the union of church and state in the fourth century, however, art began to be given a prominence that in time equaled that of the pagan religions and was often related to or in direct imitation of such religions, both in its symbolisms and its forms. Louis Réau, who held the chair of the History of Art of the Middle Ages at the Sorbonne University of France, demonstrates in his work Iconographie de lʼArt Chrétien (Vol. I, p. 10) that such paganism has long been recognized by historians of art and that the responsibility for it is to be placed, not merely on the artists, but on the policies that were followed by the church itself. He points out (p. 50) that, rather than really convert the pagans from their old practices and forms of worship, the church chose to respect “the ancestral customs and continue them under another name.”

Thus, it is not surprising to find the signs of the zodiac, so prominent in ancient Babylon, displayed on cathedrals such as that of Notre Dame in Paris, where they appear on the left doorway and surround Mary in the huge centrally located rose window. (Compare Isaiah 47:12-15.) Similarly, a guidebook to the cathedral at Auxerre, also in France, states that in the central entrance to the cathedral, “the sculptor there mixed certain pagan heroes: an Eros [Greek god of love] nude and sleeping . . . a Hercules and a Satyr [one of the Greeks’ semihuman demigods]! The register at the lower right represents the parable of the Prodigal Son.”

Similarly at the entrance of Saint Peter’s cathedral in Rome appear not only the figure of Christ and the “Virgin” but also that of Ganymede “carried off by the eagle” to become cupbearer of Zeus, king of the gods, and “Leda [who bore Castor and Pollux] fertilized by the swan” Zeus. Commenting further on such pagan influence, Réau asks: “But what is one to say then of the Final Judgment of the Sistine Chapel, the principal chapel of the Vatican, where one sees the nude Christ of Michelangelo lance the lightning like a thundering Jupiter [the Roman father of the gods] and the Damned cross the Styx [the river over which the Greeks believed the dead were ferried] in Charon’s barque?” As he states: “An example that came from so high [i.e., approved by the papacy] could not fail to be followed.”

In contrast with this, as has been seen, art was not given major attention by fleshly Israel and is virtually absent from the record of the early congregation of spiritual Israel of the first century C.E. It is, rather, in the field of literature that they surpassed all other peoples, being used by God to produce a work of superb beauty, not only in form but primarily in content: the Bible. Their inspired writings are “as apples of gold in silver carvings,” with crystal-clear truths of such brilliance as to rival the finest gems, and word pictures that convey visions and scenes of a grandeur and loveliness beyond the ability of human artists to portray.—Prov. 25:11; 3:13-15; 4:7-9; 8:9, 10; see SEAL.

ARTAXERXES

(Ar·ta·xerxʹes) [Persian, Artakhshatra].

A name or title applied to several Persian kings. The suggested meaning is “he whose empire is perfected,” or simply “great kingdom.”

1. The Persian ruler who caused the building of Jehovah’s temple at Jerusalem to be stopped. (Ezra 4:7-24) Between the reigns of Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem (537 B.C.E.), and of Darius I (Persian), who removed (520 B.C.E.) the ban imposed on the temple construction, two kings ruled: Cambyses and the Magian Gaumata, who (at least according to King Darius) pretended to be Smerdis and who obtained the throne by imposture and usurpation. Cambyses is evidently represented by the “Ahasuerus” mentioned at Ezra 4:6 to whom the first protest was made by the opposers of the temple reconstruction. Therefore, beginning with Ezra 4:7, the ruler referred to as “Artaxerxes” is evidently Gaumata, whose rule lasted but eight months (522 B.C.E.). He was thereafter put to death by Darius Hystaspis, who succeeded him to the Persian throne.

2. The Greek Septuagint translation refers to Ahasuerus, the husband of Esther, as “Artaxerxes.” (Esther 1:1 to 2:23) He is believed to be the king known in secular history, however, as Xerxes I (486-474 B.C.E.).—See AHASUERUS No. 3

3. Artaxerxes Longimanus (474-423 B.C.E), the son of Xerxes I, is considered to be the king referred to at Ezra 7:1-28 and Nehemiah 2:1-18; 13:6. Modern secular historians, not taking into account the two kings previously considered (Gaumata and Xerxes I), designate Longimanus as Artaxerxes I. According to the ancient historian Plutarch, the name Longimanus derives from the fact that the king’s right hand was longer than his left.

During Longimanus’ reign he extended permission to priest Ezra and also to Nehemiah to make trips to Jerusalem. (Ezra 7:1-7; Neh. 2:1, 7, 8) Ancient historians credit him with a generally benign and