pieces of metal or terminated with hooks; the use of crates, a panel-like or latticed wooden implement, like a shield, the prisoner being thrown into a pit, the crates laid over him and stones heaped upon it; impalement, in which some were nailed, others tied to a stake; hanging; throwing one off of a high rock; drowning; exposure to wild beasts in the arena; forcing one into gladiatorial contests; and burning. Prisoners were often confined in stocks (Acts 16:24) or chained to a soldier guard. (Acts 12:6; 28:20) The Porcian law exempted Roman citizens from flogging.

GREEK

Greek punishments were in many cases the same as those imposed by the Romans. Precipitation off a cliff or into a deep cavern, beating to death, drowning, poisoning and death by the sword were inflicted on criminals.—See crimes and punishments under individual names.

CRIMSON

See COLORS.

CRISPUS

(Crisʹpus) [curled].

The presiding officer of the synagogue at Corinth whom the apostle Paul personally baptized and whose entire household became Christians.—Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:14.

CROCODILE

While the crocodile is not specifically named in most translations, at Job 41:1 Mo and AT translate the Hebrew liw·ya·thanʹ as “crocodile” (as AT does also at Psalm 104:26) and the RS includes “crocodile” in a footnote. The description that follows this verse fits closely the crocodile, one of the largest reptiles extant. The evidence indicates that crocodiles once inhabited the Nile from its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea on up to the river’s source, though they are now found only in its upper reaches. Additionally, Professor W. Corswant, in his book A Dictionary of Life in Bible Times (1956, p. 89) gives evidence of the existence of crocodiles in ancient Palestine in the marshes that lay at the mouth of the Nahr es-Zerka (river Jabbok), “called by the ancients the ‘river of crocodiles,’ and near to the town of Crocodilon [mentioned by Roman historian Pliny].” He also mentions the killing of a crocodile in Palestine as late as 1877. Unger’s Bible Dictionary (p. 61) suggests that they probably were also abundant in the river Kishon in Bible times.

At Job 41 God continues to humble Job with a vivid and poetic description of his creation, and the crocodile, often of a vicious nature, serves well in this regard when compared with an individual man. (Job 41:1-34) The larger kinds of crocodiles may reach a length of over thirty feet (9.1 meters) and weigh as much as one ton (907 kilograms). The jaws, studded with teeth, exert a tremendous pressure. Even a 120-pound (54.4-kilogram) specimen is able to exert a pressure equal to 1,540 pounds (698.5 kilograms) with its jaws. (Vss. 13, 14) The tail not only provides a powerful means of locomotion when in the water but is a dangerous weapon on land. The tail is often used to knock the crocodile’s victim toward the water, and one blow is said to be strong enough to break all four legs of a cow. The scales of its hide are plates of horn set in the leathery skin and as difficult to remove as is the human fingernail. This armor plating covers the crocodile’s entire body, and the scales on its undersides are sharp-edged. A bullet striking a glancing hit on this armor will ricochet.—Vss. 15-17.

The creature’s eyes extend upward from the head, and doubtless their luminosity when reflecting the sun at its rising is the reason for its eyes being described as “like the beams of dawn.” The impression was strong enough for the ancient Egyptians to use the crocodile’s eyes as their hieroglyphic symbol of the morning. When rising to the surface after a period of being submerged, the rapid exhalation of air by the crocodile, producing a spray through the nostrils, may have produced, in the morning sun, the ‘flash of light’ that the book of Job describes, while from its nostrils came smoky vapor. (Vss. 18-21) With no natural enemies, it can be called “king over all majestic wild beasts.”—Vs 34.

The other occurrences of the term “Leviathan” (Job 3:8; Ps. 74:14; 104:26; Isa. 27:1) may also refer to the crocodile, but the description is not explicit. The mention of the “sea” in connection with Leviathan can, in Hebrew, properly refer to any large body of water or even to a large river. But, since one of the largest kinds of crocodile is a saltwater type, the “sea” might also be understood in its usual sense. “Leviathan” is called a “sea monster” at Isaiah 27:1, the same Hebrew term (tan·ninʹ) being applied in the plural at Genesis 1:21 with regard to the creation of “great sea monsters” on the fifth creative day.—See LEVIATHAN.

CROSS

See TORTURE STAKE.

CROWN

A headgear, simple or ornate, worn by persons of distinction, such as kings, queens, other rulers, priests and individuals to be specially honored or rewarded. After the Flood crowns came to be used as symbols of authority, dignity, power, honor and reward.

The early form of the crown was evidently that of the diadem (Heb., neʹzer), a simple band that was probably first used to hold back the long hair of the wearer. However, it was adopted as a royal headdress even among peoples wearing short hair. Such fillets are represented in sculptures of Egypt, Nineveh and Persepolis. Distinctions were drawn as to honored ones in later times by the use of diadems of various colors and types of weaving or designs. Some of these bands were about two inches (c. 5 centimeters) wide and were made of linen, silk and even of silver and gold. Sometimes the diadem was worn over a cap. There were also radiated diadems (having points all around the band running out from it like rays) and there were those set with precious stones.

The Hebrew word neʹzer, in addition to meaning “diadem” (2 Chron. 23:11), can pertain to a thing “set apart” or dedicated, as in the case of the chief priest who had upon him “the sign of dedication, the anointing oil of his God.” (Lev. 21:10-12) In view of this basic meaning, the New World Translation appropriately translates neʹzer at times as “sign of dedication,” with reference to the plate of gold worn by Israel’s high priest upon his turban. On this gold plate were inscribed the words “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.”—Ex. 29:6; 39:30; Lev. 8:9.

Diadems, which were considered symbols of royalty, were worn by Hebrew kings, such as Saul. (2 Sam. 1:10) However, the main Hebrew word denoting a crown in the usual sense and generally rendered “crown” (NW) is ʽata·rahʹ, from ʽa·tarʹ, meaning “to encircle.” It does not necessarily signify a diadem. The crown (ʽata·rahʹ) David took as a prize of war