flesh of slaves in order to prevent escape. Paul mentions a branding iron at 1 Timothy 4:2. Idol worshipers on occasion had the name, emblem or image of their idol god reproduced upon themselves to display the fact that they were devoted to that god. Deliberate disfigurement of the flesh was prohibited under the Mosaic law. (Lev. 19:28) Under the Law the only mark ever put on a slave was the piercing of the ear of one who voluntarily requested slavery to his master “to time indefinite.”—Deut. 15:16, 17.

Paul wrote to the Galatians: “I am carrying on my body the brand marks of a slave of Jesus.” (Gal. 6:17) Many were the physical abuses administered to Paul’s fleshly body because of his Christian service, some of which undoubtedly left him scarred, testifying to the authenticity of his claim as a faithful slave of Jesus Christ. (2 Cor. 11:23-27) These things may have been the marks alluded to. Or he may have had reference to the life he lived as a Christian, under influence of holy spirit, ‘browbeating his body and leading it as a slave,’ displaying the fruitage of the spirit, carrying out the work of his Christian ministry.—1 Cor. 9:27; see MARK II.

BRASS

See COPPER.

BRAZIER

Generally, a heating device consisting of a panlike receptacle elevated off the ground by means of legs and designed for holding burning coals or charcoal. The Hebrew word rendered brazier (ʼahh) is thought to be of Egyptian origin, suggesting that the brazier itself may have been an innovation from Egypt.

It appears that in the better homes the brazier was preferred to a depression in the floor of the house, in which a fire could be built. King Jehoiakim had a brazier, likely one made of metal, in his winter house.—Jer. 36:22, 23.

Some suggest that the brazier was a pitcherlike container placed in a depression in the center of the floor. In more recent times such an arrangement for heating has been used in the Middle East. After the fire goes out in the container, a tablelike frame is placed over it and this frame is, in turn, covered by a carpet. Those desiring to warm themselves stick their feet and legs and sometimes the lower part of their body under the carpet.

BREAD

Bread was a staple in the diet of the Jews and other peoples of antiquity, the art of bread making being common knowledge among the Israelites, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and others. Even in modern times in some parts of the East bread is of chief importance and other types of food are of secondary significance. At times the Bible seems to use “bread” for food in general, as at Genesis 3:19 and in the model prayer, which contains the request: “Give us today our bread for this day.”—Matt. 6:11.

In making bread the Hebrews generally used wheat flour or barley flour. Wheat was more expensive, so persons might often have to content themselves with barley bread. Reference is made to barley bread at Judges 7:13; 2 Kings 4:42 and John 6:9, 13. Some flour was rather coarse, being prepared by the use of pestle and mortar. However, “fine flour” was also in use. (Gen. 18:6; Lev. 2:1; 1 Ki. 4:22) The manna Jehovah God provided for the Israelites during their wilderness trek was ground in hand mills or pounded in a mortar.—Num. 11:8.

It was customary to grind the grain and bake fresh bread daily, and often the bread was unleavened (Heb., mats·tsahʹ). The flour was simply mixed with water, and no leaven was added before the kneading of the dough. In making leavened bread the general practice was to take a piece of dough retained from a previous baking and use it as a leavening agent by crumbling it into the water prior to the mixing in of the flour. Such a mixture would be kneaded and permitted to stand until it leavened.—Gal. 5:9; see LEAVEN; LOAF.

Offerings made to Jehovah by the Israelites consisted of some baked things. (Lev. 2:4-13) It was not permissible to use leaven in offerings made by fire to Jehovah, though certain offerings were not burned on the altar and could contain leaven. (Lev. 7:13; 23:17) The use of leavened bread was not allowed during the Passover and the festival of unfermented cakes associated with it.—Ex. 12:8, 15, 18.

The prominence of bread in the daily diet of Biblical times is indicated by repeated references to it throughout the Scriptures. For example, Melchizedek “brought out bread and wine” before blessing Abram. (Gen. 14:18) When Abraham sent away Hagar and Ishmael he “took bread and a skin water bottle and gave it to Hagar.” (Gen. 21:14) Imprisoned Jeremiah was given a daily ration of “a round loaf of bread.” (Jer. 37:21) On two occasions Jesus Christ miraculously multiplied bread to feed vast crowds. (Matt. 14:14-21; 15:32-37) Jesus taught his followers to pray for “bread for the day according to the day’s requirement.” (Luke 11:3) And the psalmist fittingly identified Jehovah God as the One providing “bread that sustains the very heart of mortal man.”—Ps. 104:15.

FIGURATIVE USE

The term “bread,” as used in the Bible, has a number of figurative applications. For instance, Joshua and Caleb told the assembled Israelites that the inhabitants of Canaan “are bread to us,” apparently meaning that they could easily be conquered and that the experience would sustain or strengthen Israel. (Num. 14:9) Great sorrow that might be associated with divine disfavor seems to be reflected in Psalm 80:5, where it is said of Israel’s Shepherd Jehovah: “You have made them eat the bread of tears.” Jehovah is also spoken of as giving his people “bread in the form of distress and water in the form of oppression,” evidently referring to conditions they would experience under siege and that would be as common to them as bread and water.—Isa. 30:20.

In speaking of those who are so wicked that they “do not sleep unless they do badness,” the book of Proverbs says: “They have fed themselves with the bread of wickedness.” (Prov. 4:14-17) Yes, they seem to sustain themselves on wicked deeds. Of one who may acquire the material provisions for life by deceit or fraud, Proverbs 20:17 states: “Bread gained by falsehood is pleasurable to a man, but afterward his mouth will be filled with gravel.” But regarding the good and industrious wife it is said: “The bread of laziness she does not eat.”—Prov. 31:27.

The Bible also uses “bread” figuratively in a favorable sense. Isaiah 55:2 shows that Jehovah’s spiritual provisions are far more important than material things, stating: “Why do you people keep paying out money for what is not bread, and why is your toil for what results in no satisfaction? Listen intently to me, and eat what is good, and let your soul find its exquisite delight in fatness itself.”

When instituting the new meal that would commemorate his death (on Nisan 14, 33 C.E.), “Jesus took a loaf and, after saying a blessing, he broke it and, giving it to the disciples, he said: ‘Take, eat. This means my body.’” (Matt. 26:26) The loaf meant Jesus’ own fleshly body “which is to be given in your behalf.” (Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:23, 24) Earlier, Jesus Christ had contrasted “bread that comes down from heaven” with the manna eaten by the Israelites in the wilderness and had plainly stated: “I am the bread of life.” He showed that he was the “living bread that came down from heaven,” adding: “If anyone eats of this bread he will live forever; and, for a fact, the bread that I shall give is my flesh in behalf of the life of the world.” (John 6:48-51) Jesus presented the merit of his ransom sacrifice to his Father Jehovah God upon his ascension to heaven. By means of this merit Christ can give life to all