OVERSEER

[Heb., pa·qidhʹ; Gr., e·piʹsko·pos].

The Hebrew term is drawn from the word pa·qadhʹ, meaning “to visit, turn attention to, inspect” (Gen. 21:1; Isa. 23:17), also “to appoint or commission.” (Gen. 39:5; Ezra 1:2) Similarly, the Greek term is related to e·pi·sko·peʹo, meaning to “look or watch over.” (Heb. 12:15) Thus, the Greek Septuagint translation at times renders the Hebrew pa·qidhʹ as e·piʹsko·pos. (Neh. 11:9, 14, 22) In both languages, then, the overseer was one who gave attention to certain matters or persons, visiting, inspecting and appointing.

OVERSEERS IN THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES

Joseph counseled Pharaoh to appoint overseers over the land to lay up stores during the years of plenty against the coming famine. (Gen. 41:34-36) Under their respective chieftains, each family line of the Levites had its particular responsibility as regards the oversight of tabernacle duties. (Num. 3:24-26, 30, 31, 35-37; compare Ezekiel 44:10, 11.) Eleazar, High Priest Aaron’s son, was made the “chieftain of chieftains of the Levites” and had general oversight of the tabernacle structure and its utensils. (Num. 3:32; 4:16; compare Jeremiah 29:26.) The high priest also might appoint overseers for certain sanctuary services. (2 Ki. 11:18b) First Chronicles chapters 23 to 27 shows the numerous and varied positions and arrangements for oversight in effect during David’s reign, as regards both the priesthood and the royal court, including economic and military matters. (Compare 2 Chronicles 17:12-19; 24:8-14; Nehemiah 11:9, 14, 22; 12:42.) The terms sar, meaning “prince,” “chief” or “one who is head over others,” and sa·risʹ, meaning “court official” (as well as “eunuch”), are also used of such men having oversight. (1 Chron. 28:1, 2; 2 Ki. 24:12, 15; see COURT OFFICIAL.) The king and the high priest were, of course, principal overseers for the nation.

The prophecy of Isaiah (60:17) sets “overseers” in parallel with “task assigners,” since overseers may assign work to others as well as supervise and watch over the interests of those persons or things entrusted to their care. In this prophecy Jehovah foretells the time when he would “appoint peace as your overseers and righteousness as your task assigners,” a prophecy initially fulfilled in Israel’s restoration from exile but more fully realized in spiritual Israel, the Christian congregation.

OVERSEERS IN THE CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION

Liddell and Scott’s A Greek-English Lexicon (Ninth ed., 1968, p. 657) defines e·piʹsko·pos as “one who watches over, overseer, guardian . . . scout, watch . . . supervisor, inspector . . . ecclesiastical superintendent.” The related e·pi·sko·peʹ means “inspection” (Luke 19:44; 1 Pet. 2:12) or “overseership,” as the apostolic “office of oversight” that Judas lost. (Acts 1:20) This latter term may apply to any examination, including that of a physician. Protective care is a basic idea inherent in e·piʹsko·pos.

Thus, the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Kittel, shows that the verb forms (e·pi·sko·peʹo and e·pi·skeʹpto·mai) were used in the basic secular sense of “to look upon, to consider, to have regard to, something or someone,” “to watch over,” “to reflect on something, to examine it, to submit it to investigation,” and “to visit,” being used in this latter sense especially of visits to sick ones, either by ministering friends or a doctor. The same dictionary shows that the Septuagint Version uses these terms in the deeper sense of “to be concerned about something,” “to care for something,” and applies it in this way to a shepherd and his sheep. An added sense in the Septuagint is that of “to muster”; and connected with this usage “is the thought of detecting who are absent, and this gives us the sense . . . ‘to miss’.” Related terms are used in the sense of “to sit in judgment” or examine judicially.—Vol. II, pp. 600-602, 606.

“Overseers” and “older men”

The Christian “overseers” (e·piʹsko·poi) correspond to those recognized as the “older men” (pre·sbyʹte·roi) of the congregation. That both of these are designations of the same position in the congregation can be seen from the instance of Paul’s calling the “older men of the congregation” of Ephesus to Miletus to meet with him there. In exhorting these “older men,” he states: “Pay attention to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the holy spirit has appointed you overseers [form of e·piʹsko·poi], to shepherd the congregation of God.” (Acts 20:17-28) The apostle further makes clear this identity in writing to Titus. He here speaks of Titus’ making appointment of “older men in city after city” and, in evident reference to such ones, he goes on to describe their qualifications but uses the term “overseer” (e·piʹsko·pos) in doing so, as he also does in setting forth similar requirements when writing Timothy.—Titus 1:5-9; 1 Tim. 3:1-7; see OLDER MAN.

“Older man” (pre·sbyʹte·ros) is the more basic (and far more frequent) designation for those appointed to exercise congregational direction, while “overseer” (e·piʹsko·pos) describes a fundamental responsibility this position entails. Hence, Vine’s Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (Vol. 1, pp. 128, 129) comments: “Presbuteros, an elder, is another term for the same person as bishop or overseer. . . . The term ‘elder’ [older man] indicates the mature spiritual experience and understanding of those so described; the term ‘bishop,’ or ‘overseer,’ indicates the character of the work undertaken.” The earlier-mentioned work edited by G. Kittel says: “They are elders in status (not in virtue of their age but in virtue of their position and accreditation), and they are bishops [overseers] in responsibility.”—Vol. II, p. 616.

Number in each congregation

The number of overseers in any one congregation therefore depended upon the number of those qualifying and accredited as “older men” in that congregation. That there were several such “overseers” in the one congregation of Ephesus is evident. Likewise, Paul, in writing to the Philippian Christians, refers to the “overseers” there (Phil. 1:1), indicating that they served, not singly, but as a body, in a corporate capacity overseeing the affairs of that congregation.

“Overseers” and “ministerial servants”

In addition to the overseers or older men, one other group is particularly indicated in the structure of the Christian congregation, that of the di·aʹko·noi or ministerial servants (“deacons,” AV). A comparison of the apostolic instructions aids in understanding something of the makeup of the two groups, the following chart listing certain corresponding requirements and then some that are distinctive:

Overseers or older men Ministerial servants

(1 Tim. 3:1-7) (Titus 1:5-9) (1 Tim. 3:8-10, 12, 13)

irreprehensible free from accusation free from accusation

husband of one wife husband of one wife husband of one wife

not newly converted . . . . . . . . . tested as to fitness

sound in mind sound in mind . . . . . . . . .

hospitable hospitable . . . . . . . . .

not a smiter not a smiter . . . . . . . . .

reasonable not self-willed . . . . . . . . .

not belligerent not prone to wrath . . . . . . . . .

Additional requirements for overseers include: moderate in habits, orderly, fine testimony from people outside (1 Tim. 3:2, 7), a lover of goodness, righteous, loyal and self-controlled. (Titus 1:8) Further requirements for ministerial servants given are: serious, not double-tongued, holding the sacred secret with a clean conscience.—1 Tim. 3:8, 9.

A notable difference in the requirements for overseers or “older men” as compared with the ministerial servants is in the qualifications of teaching, ability to exhort and reprove, required only of the overseers. Additionally, other distinctive requirements lay emphasis on the overseers’ considerate attitude and dealings with others, and their mental outlook and balance, qualities proving them to be spiritually “older men.” From this it appears that those serving as “older men” exercising oversight of the congregation were those having the responsibility and qualifications to teach and also to exercise discipline. Those serving as “ministerial servants” cared for other necessary congregational matters and duties not requiring the same extent of Scriptural knowledge, understanding, judgment, and ability to teach, necessary for the position of overseer or “older man.”—Compare 1 Corinthians 6:1-6; 1 Timothy 5:17; Hebrews 13:17; see MINISTER (Ministerial servants in the congregation).

As is considered in the article on OLDER MAN, the position of these Christian overseers closely resembles that of the “older men” who served in the fleshly nation of Israel. Hence, it is reasonable that their duties were of a similar nature, though altered by the spiritual nation of Israel’s not having a particular land and not being under the terms of the Law covenant.

Relative authority

The fact that these overseers or older men are also described as ‘shepherds of the flock of God’ and ‘God’s stewards’ eliminates any thought of rule or authority like that exercised by kings, lords or masters (owners or employers). (Acts 20:28; 1 Pet. 5:1-3) Jesus’ disciples may have entertained the idea of such degree of authority but he made clear to them that no such arrangement or relationship would exist among his followers, the basic principle for them being that of loving service to others. (Matt. 20:25-27; compare 2 Corinthians 1:24.) What authority the congregational overseers had was for the spiritual up-building of the brothers and the protection of the congregation’s purity. (Compare 2 Corinthians 13:10.) The source of their power and the weight of their word derived from their use of the Scriptures, including the teachings of God’s Son, and from the power of God’s holy spirit. (1 Cor. 2:1-10; 4:19-21; 14:37; 2 Cor. 3:1-6; 10:1-11) The example of Christ Jesus, and that of his apostles, in showing sincere concern and care for God’s sheep sets the pattern and model for all congregational overseers.—John 10:10-15; 17:11-19; 2 Cor. 11:28, 29; Phil. 2:12-21.

A consideration of the Christian Greek Scriptures indicates that the overseers or older men in any one congregation were of equal authority. It may be noted that, in his congregational letters, Paul does not single out any one individual as the overseer, nor are these letters addressed to any individual as such. This does not rule out there having been certain ones who were of greater influence, recognized and respected by the others as foremost, perhaps even being designated to preside in discussions, serving either continuously or periodically. Paul relates that, when going to Jerusalem to present the issue of circumcision, he first presented an account of his ministry privately to “those who were outstanding men,” although, as he says, these “imparted nothing new” to him. Paul evidently includes among these outstanding men James, Peter (Cephas) and John, who “seemed to be pillars.” The word here translated “seemed” has the sense of being “reputed” or “considered” as something. Thus, there does not appear to have been any sense of official rank or station implied. (Gal. 2:1-9) It may be noted that Paul later ‘resisted Peter face to face,’ due to Peter’s “not walking straight according to the truth of the good news” on the matter of association with non-Jews.—Gal. 2:11-14.

Prior to the accounts of Paul’s missionary activity, the book of Acts prominently mentions Peter and John (Acts 1:13-22; 3:1-11; 4:1, 13, 23), particularly Peter, in some cases showing him in the role of spokesman for the apostles. (Acts 1:14-22; 2:14, 37, 38; 5:1-11, 15, 29; 9:32-43; 10:1-48; 11:1-3, 18; 12:5-16; 15:6-11) James (the half brother of Jesus, not the apostle), too, receives mention, and Peter, when miraculously released from prison, was concerned that the news be transmitted to “James and the brothers.” (Acts 12:17) In the assembly held by “the apostles and the older men” at Jerusalem to decide the issue of circumcision, James took a prominent part, for he seems to have summed up the matter after considerable discussion and testimony, including that of Peter. (Acts 15:7-21) His giving his “decision,” however, does not mean that he unilaterally decided the issue or that his voice in the matter outweighed those of the others present—certainly not that of Jesus’ apostles. That James simply expressed his personal judgment and, in effect, presented a resolution for adoption, is seen by the fact that Acts 16:4 refers to Paul and his companions as later delivering to the congregations “for observance the decrees that had been decided upon by the apostles and older men who were in Jerusalem.” (Acts 15:22-29) It may be noted that it was on the occasion of this assembly that Paul speaks of James, Peter (Cephas) and John as ‘seeming to be pillars’ in the congregation.—Gal. 2:1, 9.

At the close of his last recorded missionary tour, Paul, in Jerusalem, “went in . . . to James; and all the older men were present.” Whether Peter and John were there, or whether they were active in other parts at the time, is not stated. At any rate, Paul gave his report to the assembled body and the record states that these men—not singling out anyone in particular—gave Paul counsel concerning his conduct in Jerusalem, which counsel he followed.—Acts 21:15-26; compare Acts 6:1-6.

Thus, despite the prominence of certain apostles or disciples, there is an absence of evidence of primacy on the part of any one individual. At the same time, it is evident that the decision of the assembly at Jerusalem was recognized as having authority throughout the Christian congregation in all regions. It can also be seen that certain individuals exercised oversight in particular areas, as did the apostles Paul and Peter, and as Paul, with apostolic authority, commissioned Timothy and Titus to do. (Acts 14:21-23; Gal. 2:8, 9; 1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:19-23; 1 Thess. 3:2; 1 Tim. 4:11-16; 5:17-22; Titus 1:1, 4-9) The record, however, seems to relate to special oversight or attention given due to particular need and on a temporary or occasional basis rather than any permanent or routine arrangement.—Compare 1 Timothy 1:3-7; Titus 1:5; 3 John 9, 10.

Likewise the several references to those who “preside” allows for the possibility that an overseer might preside, not only for meetings of a congregation as a whole, but also for the body of “older men” of a congregation, though evidence is lacking as to the duration or continuity of such chairmanship.—Rom. 12:8; 1 Thess. 5:12; 1 Tim. 3:4, 5; 5:17.

Historical data as found in the writings of early Christians coincides with the picture found in the Christian Greek Scriptures, though the accurate preservation of such non-Scriptural writings is, in a number of respects, subject to some question. Thus, after pointing out that there is “no trace in the New Testament of government by a single bishop,” and noting that “influence is a different thing from office,” Douglas’ New Bible Dictionary says: “Among the Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius [of the first and second centuries C.E.] is the only one who insists on monarchical episcopacy, and even he never states that this is of divine institution—an argument which would have been decisive, if it had been available for him to use.” Jerome (of the fourth century) is quoted as saying that the supremacy of a single bishop (e·piʹsko·pos) came about ‘by custom rather than by the Lord’s actual appointment,’ being a means used to prevent divisions. The suggestion is also made that “monarchical episcopacy appeared in the local congregations when some gifted individual accquired a permanent chairmanship of the board of presbyter-bishops.”—P. 158; compare 1 Corinthians 4:8-13.

Whatever the way in which it developed, history shows that the position of overseer (e·piʹsko·pos) did eventually come to reside in one individual in each congregation with a resultant concentration of authority. In time such overseers even extended their control beyond their city to surrounding regions, forming a “diocese.” The true sense of the term e·piʹsko·pos and the Scriptural example were lost from view and the designation of “bishop” took on a perverted sense, becoming the title of men who ‘lorded it over the flock.’—Compare Acts 20:29-35; 1 Peter 5:2, 3.

“BUSYBODY”

The apostle’s warning against becoming a “busybody in other people’s matters” employs the Greek term al·lo·tri·e·piʹsko·pos, literally “an overseer of what is another’s.” (1 Pet. 4:15) The term is unique in Greek writings, being found only in the Christian Greek Scriptures.

THE SUPREME OVERSEER AND HIS DEPUTY

First Peter 2:25 evidently quotes Isaiah 53:6 as to those who ‘like sheep went astray,’ and Peter then says: “But now you have returned to the shepherd and overseer of your souls.” The reference must be to Jehovah God, since those to whom Peter wrote had not gone astray from Christ Jesus, but, rather, through him had been led back to God. The entire Bible is the record of Jehovah God’s shepherding and overseeing his servants, as well as his personal inspection of mankind as a whole or in particular areas. (Compare Genesis 6:5, 13; 7:1; 11:5-8; 18:20, 21; Psalm 11:4.) While his ‘visits’ bring favorable effects and benefits to those walking in righteousness, references to his ‘turning attention to’ or ‘inspecting’ are frequently associated with expressions of adverse judgment by him.—Gen. 21:1; Isa. 10:1-3; Jer. 8:12; 23:11-14; 1 Pet. 2:12; Rev. 18:4-8, 24; 21:3, 4.

Jehovah’s Son, Christ Jesus, acts as God’s Deputy Overseer, likewise shepherding, overseeing, inspecting, disciplining and executing judgment. (Compare John 10:11-15; Hebrews 13:20; Revelation 1:1; chapters 2, 3; 6:15-17; 7:15-17.) It is true that government by individuals existed within fleshly Israel, with such men as Moses, Joshua, the later kings of the nation, and the high priest holding singular executive positions. However, the evidence of the Christian Greek Scriptures is to the effect that the office filled by these men prefigured that of God’s Son, who is ‘the prophet like Moses,’ the ‘greater than Solomon,’ and God’s High Priest. The absence of primacy in the body of the apostles and “older men” at Jerusalem emphasizes and exalts the singular role of God’s Son as the Head of the congregation.—Eph. 1:22, 23; 2:20-22; Col. 1:18; 1 Pet. 2:4-6.