burnt offerings was similarly positioned before the temple (Ezek. 40:47), but it had a different design than the previous altars. The altar consisted of several sections successively indented or recessed. Its dimensions are given in measurements of the long cubit of about 20.4 inches (51.8 centimeters). The base of the altar was one cubit thick and had a “lip” of one span (about 8.8 inches or 22.2 centimeters) as a border around the top, thus forming a sort of gutter or channel, perhaps for receiving blood poured out. (Ezek. 43:13, 14) Resting on the base itself, but set in one cubit from its outer edge, was another section and it measured two cubits (40.8 inches or 103.6 centimeters) in height. A third section was stepped in one cubit (20.4 inches or 51.8 centimeters) and was four cubits (81.6 inches or 207.2 centimeters) in height. It also had a border surrounding it of a half cubit (about 10.2 inches or 25.9 centimeters), perhaps forming a second channel or a protective ledge. Finally, the altar hearth extended up yet another four cubits and was also stepped in one cubit from the preceding section; out from it extended four horns. Stairs from the E provided approach to the altar hearth. (Ezek. 43:14-17) As with the altar built in the wilderness, a seven-day period of atonement and installation was to be observed. (Ezek. 43:19-26) Annual atonement was to be made for the altar along with the rest of the sanctuary on the first day of Nisan. (Ezek. 45:18, 19) The river of healing waters seen by Ezekiel flowed eastward from the temple and passed S of the altar.—Ezek. 47:1.

The altar of incense is not mentioned by name in the vision. However, the description of the “wooden altar” at Ezekiel 41:22, particularly the reference to it as the “table that is before Jehovah,” indicates that this corresponded to the altar of incense rather than the table of showbread. (Compare Exodus 30:6, 8; 40:5; Revelation 8:3.) This altar was three cubits high and evidently two cubits square.

OTHER ALTARS

Since the post-Flood population did not continue with Noah in pure worship, it follows that many false altars were produced and excavations in Canaan, Mesopotamia and other sites indicate that these existed from the earliest periods. Balaam had seven altars erected successively at three different sites in his vain attempts at calling down a curse on Israel.—Num. 22:40, 41; 23:4, 14, 29, 30.

The Israelites were instructed to tear down all pagan altars and destroy the sacred pillars and poles customarily built alongside them. (Ex. 34:13; Deut. 7:5, 6; 12:1-3) They were never to imitate these nor offer up their children by fire as did the Canaanites. (Deut. 12:30, 31; 16:21) Instead of a multiplicity of altars Israel was to have just one altar for the worship of the one true God, and this would be located at the place Jehovah would choose. (Deut. 12:2-6, 13, 14, 27; contrast this with Babylon, where there were 180 altars to the goddess Ishtar alone.) They were at first instructed to make an altar of unhewn stones following the crossing of the Jordan River (Deut. 27:4-8), and this was built by Joshua on Mount Ebal. (Josh. 8:30-32) Following the division of the conquered land, the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half tribe of Manasseh built a conspicuous altar by the Jordan, which provoked a temporary crisis among the other tribes until it was determined that the altar was no sign of apostasy but only a memorial of faithfulness to Jehovah as the true God.—Josh. 22:10-34.

Other altars were constructed, but these appear to have been built for specific occasions, not for continual use, and usually were built in connection with angelic appearances or by angelic instruction. The one at Bochim and those of Gideon and Manoah were such. (Judg. 2:1-5; 6:24-32; 13:15-23) The record concerning the altar set up at Bethel by the people when considering how to prevent the disappearance of the tribe of Benjamin does not indicate whether such had divine approval or was simply a case of their ‘doing what was right in their own eyes.’ (Judg. 21:4, 25) As God’s representative, Samuel offered sacrifice at Mizpah and also built an altar at Ramah. (1 Sam. 7:5, 9, 10, 17) This may have been due to the fact that Jehovah’s presence was no longer in evidence at the tabernacle in Shiloh, following the removal of the Ark.—1 Sam. 4:4, 11; 6:19-21; 7:1, 2; compare Psalm 78:59-64.

Royal construction and use of altars

Saul offered sacrifice at Gilgal and built an altar at Aijalon. (1 Sam. 13:7-12; 14:33-35) In the first case he was condemned for not waiting on Samuel, but the propriety of the locations as places for sacrificing is not considered, though the statement regarding the latter altar, that “with it he started altar building to Jehovah,” might indicate an improper multiplying of altars for worship.—Compare Genesis 4:26.

David instructed Jonathan to explain his absence at Saul’s table on the day of the new moon by saying that David was attending an annual family sacrifice at Bethlehem; however, since this was a subterfuge, it cannot definitely be known whether such was really celebrated. (1 Sam. 20:6, 28, 29) Later, as king, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah (Ornan) and this was at divine command. (2 Sam. 24:18-25; 1 Chron. 21:18-26; 22:1) The statement at 1 Kings 9:25 with regard to Solomon’s ‘offering up sacrifices on the altar’ clearly refers to his causing such to be done through the authorized priesthood.—Compare 2 Chronicles 8:12-15.

With the setting up of the temple at Jerusalem, it appears that the altar was now definitely at “the place that Jehovah your God will choose . . . and there you must come.” (Deut. 12:5) Aside from the altar used by Elijah on Mount Carmel in the fire test with the Baal priests (1 Ki. 18:26-35), only apostasy now caused the setting up of other altars. Solomon himself was the first to be guilty of such apostasy due to the influence of his foreign wives. (1 Ki. 11:3-8) Jeroboam of the newly formed northern kingdom endeavored to divert his subjects from going to the temple in Jerusalem by setting up altars at Bethel and Dan. (1 Ki. 12:28-33) A prophet then foretold that in the reign of King Josiah of Judah the bones of the prophets officiating at the altar in Bethel would be burned thereon. The altar was ripped apart as a sign and the prophecy was later completely fulfilled.—1 Ki. 13:1-5; 2 Ki. 23:15-20; compare Amos 3:14.

During King Ahab’s rule in Israel pagan altars flourished. (1 Ki. 16:31-33) In the time of King Ahaz of Judah there were altars “at every corner in Jerusalem,” as well as in the many “high places.” (2 Chron. 28:24, 25) Manasseh went so far as to build altars within the house of Jehovah and altars for astrology in the temple courtyard.—2 Ki. 21:3-5.

Though faithful kings periodically destroyed these false altars (2 Ki. 11:18; 23:12, 20; 2 Chron. 14:3; 30:14; 31:1; 34:4-7), prior to Jerusalem’s fall Jeremiah could still say: “Your gods have become as many as your cities, O Judah; and as many altars as the streets of Jerusalem you people have placed for the shameful thing, altars to make sacrificial smoke to Baal.”—Jer. 11:13.

During exile and in apostolic period

During the period of the exile the Jews who fled to Elephantine in Upper Egypt set up a temple and an altar, according to the Elephantine papyri; and some centuries later the Jews near Leontopolis did likewise. (Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, chap. III, par. 1; Wars of the Jews, Book VII, chap. X, pars. 2 and 3) This latter temple and altar were built by Priest Onias in an attempt at fulfilling Isaiah 19:19, 20.

In the Common Era, the apostle Paul in speaking to the Athenians referred to an altar inscribed “To an Unknown God.” (Acts 17:23) Ample historical information is available to corroborate this. Apollonius of Tyana, who visited Athens sometime after Paul, wrote: “It is a much greater proof of wisdom and sobriety to speak well of all the gods, especially at Athens, where altars are set up in honor even of unknown gods.” Geographer Pausanias in his Description of Greece in the second century C.E. reported that on the road from the Phaleron Bay harbor to the city of Athens he had observed “altars of the gods named Unknown, and of heroes.” He also spoke of “an altar of Unknown Gods” at Olympia. A similar altar was discovered in 1909 at Pergamum in the precincts of the temple of Demeter. And in Rome on the Palatine Hill is an altar dating from about 100 B.C.E., with the inscription “Sacred to a god or goddess.”

SIGNIFICANCE OF ALTARS

In Hebrews chapters 8 and 9 the apostle Paul clearly shows all the things related to the tabernacle and temple service to have been typical, though, as he states, he does not take the time to explain the significance of all the details. (Heb. 8:5; 9:5, 23) The significance of the two altars is made evident by information in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The altar of burnt offerings served as the point of mediation between God and man and hence points to God’s arrangement for the ransom sacrifice of his Son. (Compare 1 Corinthians 10:16-21.) Its situation in front of the entrance to the sanctuary emphasizes the requirement of faith in that ransom sacrifice as a prerequisite for acceptance by God. (John 3:16-18) The insistence upon a single altar of sacrifice is in harmony with Christ’s declaration: “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me,” as well as with the many texts declaring the unity to be manifest in the Christian faith. (John 14:6; Matt. 7:13, 14; 1 Cor. 1:10-13; Eph. 4:3-6; note also Isaiah’s prophecy, at Isaiah 56:7; 60:7, that people of all nations would come to God’s altar.) It likewise relates to the “spiritual sacrifices” offered up by Christian worshipers.—1 Pet. 2:5; Heb. 13:15; compare 1 Corinthians 9:13, 14.

It is notable that, though some individuals fled to the altar, taking hold of its horns, in hope of gaining protection, God’s law prescribed that the willful murderer was to be taken “even from being at my altar to die.” (Ex. 21:14; compare 1 Kings 1:50-53; 2:28-34.) The psalmist sang: “I shall wash my hands in innocency itself, and I will march around your altar, O Jehovah.”—Ps. 26:6.

Although Hebrews 13:10 has been used as basis for erection of literal altars by professed Christians, the context shows that the “altar” spoken of by Paul is not literal but symbolic. (Heb. 13:10-16) M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopœdia (Vol. I, p. 183) says concerning the early Christians: “When the ancient apologists were reproached with having no temples, no altars, no shrines, they simply replied, ‘Shrines and altars we have not.’” Commenting on Hebrews 13:10, Vincent’s Word Studies in the New Testament (Vol. IV, p. 567) says: “It is a mistake to try to find in the Christian economy some specific object answering to altar—either the cross, or the eucharistic table, or Christ himself. Rather the ideas of approach to God,—sacrifice, atonement, pardon and acceptance, salvation,—are gathered up and generally represented in the figure of the altar, even as the Jewish altar was the point at which all these ideas converged.”

The multiplying of altars was strongly condemned by the Hebrew prophets. (Isa. 17:7, 8) Hosea said that Ephraim “multiplied altars in order to sin” (Hosea 8:11; 10:1, 2, 8; 12:11); Jeremiah stated that the sin of Judah was engraved “on the horns of their altars” (Jer. 17:1, 2); and Ezekiel foretold the slaughter of false worshipers “all around their altars.”—Ezek. 6:4-6, 13.

Expressions of divine judgment are also prophetically associated with the true altar. (Isa. 6:5-12; Ezek. 9:2; Amos 9:1) It is from “underneath the altar” that the souls of those slaughtered for witnessing for God symbolically cry out: “Until when, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, are you refraining from judging and avenging our blood upon those who dwell on the earth?”—Rev. 6:9, 10; compare 8:5; 11:1; 16:7.

At Revelation 8:3, 4 the golden altar of incense is expressly related to the prayers of the righteous. It was customary among the Jews to pray at “the hour of offering incense.” (Luke 1:9, 10; compare Psalm 141:2.) The single altar for offering incense also corresponds with the one avenue of approach outlined in the Christian Greek Scriptures.—John 10:9; 14:6; 16:23; Eph. 2:18-22; see OFFERINGS; TABERNACLE; TEMPLE.

ALUSH

(Aʹlush) [perhaps, crowding].

A place on the Sinai Peninsula, between Dophkah and Rephidim, where the Israelites encamped. The site is not known.—Num. 33:13, 14.

ALVAH

(Alʹvah) [high, tall].

A sheik of Edom and descendant of Esau. (Gen. 36:40, 43; 1 Chron. 1:51) Possibly a place and a tribe were also called Alvah.—See TIMNA No. 3.

ALVAN

(Alʹvan) [high, tall].

First-named son of Sheik Shobal, a Seirite.—Gen. 36:20, 23, 29; 1 Chron. 1:40.

AMAD

(Aʹmad) [people of time or duration, station].

A city of the fertile coastal plain N of the Carmel range, assigned to the tribe of Asher. (Josh. 19:26) Although there are several ruins in this area called ‘Amud, the exact location of this city is not known.

AMAL

(Aʹmal) [trouble, labor, toil].

Last named of four sons of Helem listed among “the sons of Asher, heads of the house of the forefathers, select, valiant, mighty men, heads of the chieftains.”—1 Chron. 7:35, 40.

AMALEK, AMALEKITES

(Amʹa·lek, A·malʹek·ites) [warlike, dweller in the vale].

Son of Esau’s firstborn Eliphaz, by his concubine Timna. (Gen. 36:12, 16) Amalek, a grandson of Esau, was one of the fourteen sheiks of Edom. (Gen. 36:15, 16) Amalek’s name also designated his tribal descendants.—Deut. 25:17; Judg. 7:12; 1 Sam. 15:2.

The belief of some that the Amalekites were of a much earlier origin and not descendants of Esau’s grandson Amalek is not founded on solid factual ground. Identification of the Amalekites with those living in Melukhkha collapsed when archaeological discoveries revealed that land to be in India instead of in the Sinai Peninsula as supposed. About the only support left for the notion that the Amalekites predated Amalek is Balaam’s proverbial utterance: “Amalek was the first one of the nations, but his end afterward will be even his perishing.” (Num. 24:20) This, however, is a weak argument, for Balaam was not speaking of history in general and the origin of nations seven and a half centuries earlier. He was speaking of history only in connection with the Israelites, whom he was hired to curse and who were about to enter the Promised Land. Hence, after listing Moab, Edom and Seir as Israel’s opponents Balaam declares that the Amalekites were actually “the first one of the nations” to rise up in opposition to the Israelites on their march out of Egypt toward Palestine, and for this reason, the end of Amalek “will be even his perishing.”

Moses, therefore, in relating events of Abraham’s day before Amalek was born, spoke of “the whole field of the Amalekites,” evidently doing so proleptically, that is, he was describing the region as understood by people of Moses’ time, rather than implying that Amalekites predated Amalek. (Gen. 14:7) The center of this Amalekite territory was