LAW
Law is defined as: “1. The principles and regulations emanating from a government and applicable to a people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. 2. Any written or positive rule, or collection of rules, prescribed under the authority of the state or nation.”—American College Dictionary.
“A divine commandment or a revelation of the Will of God; collectively, the whole body of God’s commandments or revelations; the will of God, whether expressed in Scripture, implanted in instinct, or deduced by reason.”—Webster’s New International Dictionary.
The word “law,” in the Hebrew Scriptures, is translated primarily from toh·rahʹ, related to the verb hoh·rahʹ, meaning “to direct, teach, instruct in; to point, show the way.” In some cases it is translated from dath, “law, decree.” (Dan. 6:5, 8, 15) Other words translated in the Authorized Version as “law” are mish·patʹ, “judicial decision, ordinance, judgment,” and mits·wahʹ, “commandment, ordinance, precept.” In the Greek Scriptures the word noʹmos, from the verb neʹmo, “to deal out, distribute,” is translated “law.”
Jehovah God is designated as the Source of law, the Supreme Lawgiver (Isa. 33:22), the Sovereign, delegating authority (Ps. 73:28; Jer. 50:25; Luke 2:29; Acts 4:24; Rev. 6:10) and without whose permission or allowance no authority can be exercised. (Rom. 13:1; Dan. 4:35; Acts 17:24-31) His throne is established on righteousness and judgment. (Ps. 97:1, 2) The stated will of God becomes law to his creatures.
LAW TO ANGELS
Angels, higher than man, are subject to the law and commandments of God. (Heb. 1:7, 14; Ps. 104:4) Jehovah even commanded and restricted his adversary Satan. (Job 1:12; 2:6) Michael the archangel recognized and respected Jehovah’s position as Supreme Judge when he said, in dispute with the Devil: “May Jehovah rebuke you,” (Jude 9; compare Zechariah 3:2.) The glorified Jesus Christ is shown as having all the angels placed under his authority by Jehovah God. (Heb. 1:6; 1 Pet. 3:22; Matt. 13:41; 25:31; Phil. 2:9-11) An angelic messenger was sent by Jesus’ command to John. (Rev. 1:1) At 1 Corinthians 6:3 the apostle Paul speaks of the spiritual brothers of Christ as designated to judge angels.
LAW OF DIVINE CREATION (sometimes called “law of nature”)
One of the definitions of law given in Webster’s New International Dictionary, Second Edition, is “the observed regularity in nature.” As Creator of all things in heaven and earth (Acts 4:24; Rev. 4:11), Jehovah has established laws governing all created things. Job 38:10 speaks of a “regulation” on the sea; 38:12, of ‘commanding the morning’; and 38:31-33 calls attention to star constellations and to “the statutes of the heavens.” The same chapter points to God as governing the light, snow, hail, clouds, rain, dew and lightning. Continuing to chapters 39-41, God’s care for the animal kingdom is shown and the birth, life cycles and habits of animals are attributed to regulations laid down by God, not to any evolutionary “adaptation.” In fact, in the very creating of life forms God incorporated the law that each was to bring forth “according to its kind,” making evolution impossible. (Gen. 1:11, 12, 21, 24, 25) Man also brought forth sons “in his likeness, in his image.” (Gen. 5:3) At Psalm 139:13-16 the embryonic growth of a child in the womb is spoken of, its parts being written down “in [Jehovah’s] book” before any of them actually existed. Job 26:7 describes Jehovah as “hanging the earth upon nothing.” Scientists today attribute the earth’s position in space primarily to the interaction of the law of gravity and the law of centrifugal force.
LAW TO ADAM.
In the garden of Eden, Adam and Eve were commanded by God as to their duties (1) to fill the earth, (2) to subdue it, (3) to have in subjection all other living creatures of earth, sea and air. (Gen. 1:28) They were given laws as to their diet, granting them the seed-bearing vegetation and fruit as food. (Gen. 1:29; 2:16) However, Adam was given a command that prohibited eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and bad (Gen. 2:17); this was transmitted to Eve. (Gen. 3:2, 3) Adam is presented as a transgressor and a trespasser because he violated a stated law.—Rom. 5:14, 17; 4:15.
LAWS TO NOAH, AND PATRIARCHAL LAW
Noah was given commandments relative to the building of the ark and the saving of his family. (Gen. 6:22) After the Flood he was given laws allowing flesh to be added to man’s diet; declaring sacredness of life and, therefore, of blood, in which is the life; prohibiting the eating of blood; condemning murder and instituting capital punishment for this crime.—Gen. 9:3-6.
The patriarch was a family head and ruler. Jehovah is designated as the great Family Head or Patriarch, “the Father, to whom every family in heaven and on earth owes its name.” (Eph. 3:14, 15) Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are outstanding examples of patriarchs. These were especially dealt with by Jehovah. Abraham was given the command to circumcise all the males of his household as a sign of God’s covenant with him. (Gen. 17:11, 12) He observed Jehovah’s “commands,” “statutes” and “laws.” He knew Jehovah’s way to do righteousness and judgment and laid these commands on his household.—Gen. 26:4, 5; 18:19.
The laws that governed the patriarchs were also generally understood and partially reflected in the laws of the nations at that time, all of which nations sprang from the three sons of Noah, the patriarch. For example, the Pharaoh of Egypt knew that it was wrong to take another man’s wife (Gen. 12:14-20), as did the kings of the Philistines in the cases of Sarah and Rebekah.—Gen. 20:2-6; 26:7-11.
In the days of Moses the Israelites were in slavery to Egypt. They had voluntarily come into Egypt during Jacob’s lifetime, but were enslaved after Jacob’s son, the prime minister Joseph, had died. So, in effect, they were ‘sold’ into slavery for nothing. Jehovah, in harmony with the patriarchal law of redemption and of the priority of the firstborn son, told Pharaoh, by the mouth of Moses and Aaron: “Israel is my son, my first-born. And I say to you: Send my son away that he may serve me. But should you refuse to send him away, here I am killing your son, your first-born.” (Ex. 4:22, 23) No redemption price was necessary for this release, nor was any given to Egypt. And when the Israelites left their slave masters, the Egyptians, “Jehovah gave the people favor in the eyes of the Egyptians, so that these granted what was asked; and they stripped the Egyptians.” (Ex. 3:21; 12:36) They had entered the land with the approval of the Pharaoh and as free people, not as captives of war to be enslaved. The enslavement had been unjust, so evidently Jehovah was seeing to it that they were now given wages for their labor.
The family was held responsible for violations of law by individual members. The patriarchal head was the responsible representative, blamed for wrongs of his family and required to punish individual wrongdoers in the family.—Gen. 31:30-32.
Marriage and birthright under patriarchal law
Parents governed the arrangement of marriage for their sons and daughters. (Gen. 24:1-4) The paying of a bride-price was common. (Gen. 34:11, 12) Among the worshipers of Jehovah intermarriage with idolaters was disobedience and against the interests of the family.—Gen. 26:34, 35; 27:46; 28:1, 6-9.
The birthright was reserved for the firstborn, belonging to him by inheritance. This included receiving a double portion of the estate. However, it could be transferred by the family head, the father. (Gen. 48:22; 1 Chron. 5:1) The oldest son normally became the patriarchal head when the father died. Sons, after marriage, could establish households separate from the father’s headship and could themselves become family heads.
Morals
Fornication was disgraceful and punishable, especially in cases of engaged persons or married persons (adultery). (Gen. 38:24-26; 34:7) Brother-in-law marriage was practiced when a man died childless. His brother could then take his wife, and the firstborn of their union would inherit the dead man’s estate and carry on his name.—Gen. 38:6-26.
Property
Generally there seems to have been no holding of individual property, aside from a few personal belongings, all herds, household goods and equipment being held in common by the family.—Gen. 31:14-16.
On the basis of related historical evidence, some scholars believe that, in transferring land, the buyer was shown the land from a vantage point, the exact boundaries being designated. When the buyer said, “I see,” he indicated legal acceptance. When Jehovah gave Abraham the promise of receiving the land of Canaan, Abraham was first told to look in all four directions. Abraham did not say, “I see,” perhaps because God said that he would give the Promised Land to Abraham’s seed, later on. (Gen. 13:14, 15) Moses, as the legal representative of Israel, was told to “see” the land, which, if the view just discussed is correct, would indicate legal transfer of the land to Israel, for them to take it under Joshua’s leadership. (Deut. 3:27, 28; 34:4; consider also Satan’s offer to Jesus at Matthew 4:8.) Other actions appearing to have similar legal flavor were: walking across the land or entering it for the purpose of taking possession. (Gen. 13:17; 28:13) In certain ancient secular documents, the exact number of trees on a piece of land was listed at each real-estate sale.—Compare Genesis 23:17, 18.
Custody
Legal responsibility came when an individual promised to keep or ‘guard’ a person, animal or thing. (Gen. 30:31) Reuben, as the firstborn of Jacob, was responsible in the case of Joseph’s disappearance. (Gen. 37:21, 22, 29, 30) The custodian was to give sufficient care to that in his charge. He had to restore animals stolen, but not those that died of themselves or that were lost through events beyond his control, such as to armed sheep rustlers. If killed by a wild beast, evidence of the torn animal had to be produced to clear the custodian of responsibility.—Gen. 37:12-30, 32, 33; Ex. 22:10-13.
Slavery
Slaves might be purchased or be such through birth to slave parents. (Gen. 17:12, 27) Slaves could enjoy a very honored position in the patriarchal household, as was the case with Abraham’s servant Eliezer.—Gen. 15:2; 24:1-4.
LAW OF GOD TO ISRAEL—THE LAW OF MOSES
Jehovah gave Israel the Law through Moses as mediator, in the wilderness of Sinai, 1513 B.C.E. At the inauguration of the Law at Mount Horeb there was an awe-inspiring demonstration of Jehovah’s power. (Ex. 19:16-19; 20:18-21; Heb. 12:18-21, 25, 26) The covenant was validated by the blood of bulls and goats. The people presented communion offerings, and heard the book of the covenant read to them, after which they agreed to be obedient to all that Jehovah had spoken. Many of the earlier patriarchal laws were incorporated in the Law given through Moses.—Ex. 24:3-8; Heb. 9:15-21; see COVENANT.
The first five books of the Bible (Genesis through Deuteronomy) are often referred to as “the Law.” Sometimes this term is used with reference to the entire inspired Hebrew Scriptures. Generally, however, the Jews considered the entire Hebrew Scriptures as composed of three sections, “the Law,” “the Prophets” and “Psalms.” (Luke 24:44) Commands that came through the prophets were also binding upon Israel.
Jehovah was recognized in the Law as absolute Sovereign and was also King in a special way. Since Jehovah was both God and King of Israel, disobedience to the Law was both a religious offense and lese majesty, an offense against the Head of State, the King Jehovah. David and Solomon and their successors on the throne of Judah were said to sit on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) Human kings and rulers in Israel were bound by the Law, and when they became despotic they were law violators accountable to God. (1 Sam. 15:22, 23) Kingship and priesthood were separate, this constituting a balance of power and a safeguard against tyranny. It kept the Israelites ever mindful that Jehovah was their God and real King. Each individual’s relationship to God and to his fellowman was defined by the Law and each individual could approach God through the priestly arrangement.
Under the Law the Israelites could have become a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex. 19:5, 6) The Law’s demands of exclusive devotion to Jehovah, its absolute prohibition of any form of interfaith, and its regulations concerning religious cleanness and diet constituted a ‘wall of separation’ to keep the nation outstandingly separate from other nations. (Eph. 2:14) A Jew could hardly enter a Gentile tent or house or eat with Gentiles without becoming religiously unclean. In fact, when Jesus was on earth, even entering a Gentile house or building was thought to make a Jew unclean. (John 18:28; Acts 10:28) The sanctity of life and the dignity and honor of the family, of marriage, of person, were protected. (See accompanying outline on Law covenant.) Additional effects, that could be considered incidental to the religious separation that the Law covenant accomplished, were the health benefits and protections from diseases common to the nations around the Israelites. The laws of moral cleanness, physical sanitation and diet undoubtedly had a very salutary effect when they were obeyed.
But the real purpose of the Law was, as stated by the apostle Paul, “to make transgressions manifest, until the seed should arrive.” It was a “tutor leading to Christ.” It pointed to Christ as the objective aimed at (“Christ is the end of the Law”). It revealed that all humans, including the Jews, are under sin and that life cannot be obtained by “works of law.” (Gal. 3:19-24; Rom. 3:20; 10:4) It was “spiritual,” from God, and “holy.” (Rom. 7:12, 14) At Ephesians 2:15 it is called the “Law of commandments consisting in decrees.” It was a standard of perfection, marking the one who could keep it as perfect, worthy of life. (Lev. 18:5; Gal. 3:12) Since imperfect humans could not keep the Law, it showed that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” (Rom. 3:23) Only Jesus Christ kept it blamelessly.—John 8:46; Heb. 7:26.
The Law also served as having “a shadow of the good things to come,” and things connected with it were “typical representations,” causing Jesus and the apostles to call often upon it to explain heavenly things and matters concerning Christian doctrine and conduct. It, therefore, provides an essential and necessary field of study for the Christian.—Heb. 10:1; 9:23.
Jesus said that the whole Law hung upon the two commandments to love God and to love one’s neighbor. (Matt. 22:35-40) It is interesting that in the book of Deuteronomy (where the Law was modified somewhat to govern Israel’s new circumstances upon settling in the Promised Land) the Hebrew words for “love,” “loved,” and so forth, appear more than twenty times.
The Ten Words (Ex. 34:28), or the Ten Commandments, were the basic part of the Law, but were combined with about six hundred other laws, all of which were of equal force and binding power upon the Israelites. (Jas. 2:10) The first four of the Ten Commandments defined man’s relationship to God; the fifth, to God and to parents; and the last five, to one’s fellowman. These last five were named in apparent order of severity of harm done to one’s fellowman: murder, adultery, stealing, bearing false witness and covetousness or selfish desire. The Tenth Commandment makes the Law unique in comparison with the laws of all other nations in that it prohibits selfish desire, a command in reality enforceable only by God. It actually got at the cause of violation of all the other commandments.—Ex. 20:2-17; Deut. 5:6-21; compare Ephesians 5:5; Colossians 3:5; James 1:14, 15; 1 John 2:15-17.
The Law contained many principles and guiding statutes. But the judges were given latitude to investigate and consider motives and attitude of violators, along with the circumstances surrounding the violation. A deliberate, disrespectful or unrepentant violator received the full penalty. (Num. 15:30, 31) In other cases a lighter judgment might be determined. For example, whereas a murderer was to be put to death without fail, an accidental manslayer could receive mercy. (Num. 35:15, 16) One whose habitually goring bull killed a man might die; or the judges might impose a ransom. (Ex. 21:29-32) The difference between a deliberate thief and a voluntarily confessing wrongdoer evidently accounts for the difference in penalty stated at Exodus 22:7 and that of Leviticus 6:1-7.—See accompanying outline.
LAW OF CONSCIENCE
The Bible shows this results from persons having ‘the law written in their hearts.’ Those not under a direct law from God, such as the Law given through Moses, are shown to be “a law to themselves,” for their consciences cause them to be “accused or even excused” in their own thoughts. (Rom. 2:14, 15) Many just laws in pagan societies reflect this conscience, originally placed in their forefather Adam, and passed down through Noah.
At 1 Corinthians 8:7 the apostle Paul says that lack of accurate Christian knowledge could result in a weak conscience. Conscience can be a good guide or a poor one, depending upon the knowledge and training of the individual. (1 Tim. 1:5; Heb. 5:14) One’s conscience can be defiled and, therefore, misleading. (Titus 1:15) Some, by constantly going contrary to conscience, cause it to become like insensitive scar tissue, and consequently no safe law to follow.—1 Tim. 4:1, 2.
“LAW OF THE CHRIST”
Paul wrote: “Go on carrying the burdens of one another, and thus fulfill the law of the Christ.” (Gal. 6:2) While the Law covenant was terminated at Pentecost, 33 C.E. (“since the priesthood is being changed, there comes to be of necessity a change also of the law” [Heb. 7:12]), Christians come “under law toward Christ.” (1 Cor. 9:21) This law is called the “perfect law that belongs to freedom,” “the law of a free people,” “the law of faith.” (Jas. 1:25; 2:12; Rom. 3:27) Such new law had been foretold by God through the prophet Jeremiah when he spoke of a new covenant and a writing of his law on the hearts of his people.—Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:6-13.
Like Moses, the mediator of the Law covenant, Jesus Christ is Mediator of the new covenant. Moses wrote the Law in code form, but Jesus did not personally put a law down in writing. He talked and put his law into the minds and hearts of his disciples. Neither did his disciples set down laws in the form of a code for Christians, classifying the laws into categories and subheadings. Nonetheless, the Christian Greek Scriptures are full of laws, commands and decrees that the Christian is bound to observe.—Rev. 14:12; 1 John 5:2, 3; 4:21; 3:22-24; 2 John 4-6; John 13:34, 35; 14:15; 15:14.
Jesus gave instruction to his disciples to preach the ‘good news of the kingdom.’ His command is found at Matthew 10:1-42; Luke 9:1-6; 10:1-12. At Matthew 28:18-20 a new command was given to Jesus’ disciples to go, not to the Jews only, but to all nations, to make disciples and baptize them with a new baptism “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the holy spirit, teaching them to observe all the things I have commanded you.” Thus, with divine authorization Jesus taught and issued commands while on earth (Acts 1:1, 2) as well as after his resurrection. (Acts 9:5, 6; Rev. 1:1-3) The entire book of Revelation consists of prophecies, commands, admonition and instruction to the Christian congregation.
The “law of the Christ” covers the whole course and scope of the Christian’s life and work. By the help of God’s spirit the Christian can follow the commands so as to be judged favorably by that law, for it is “the law of that spirit which gives life in union with Christ Jesus.”—Rom. 8:2, 4.
“LAW OF GOD”
The apostle Paul speaks of the Christian’s fight as influenced by two factors, the “law of God,” the “law of my mind” or the “law of that spirit which gives life” on one side, and “sin’s law” or the “law of sin and of death” on the other. Paul describes the conflict, saying that fallen flesh infected with sin is enslaved to “sin’s law.” “The minding of the flesh means death,” but “God, by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and concerning sin, condemned sin in the flesh.” By God’s spirit the Christian can win the fight—by exercising faith in Christ, putting to death the practices of the body and living according to the spirit’s direction—and can gain life.—Rom. 7:21–8:13.
LAW OF SIN AND DEATH
The apostle Paul argues that, because of the sin of mankind’s father Adam, “death ruled as king” from Adam to the time of Moses (when the Law was given), and that the Law made transgressions manifest, making men chargeable with sin. (Rom. 5:12-14; Gal. 3:19) This rule or law of sin working in imperfect flesh exercises power over it, making it incline toward violation of God’s law. (Rom. 7:23; Gen. 8:21) Sin causes death. (Rom. 6:23; 1 Cor. 15:56) The law of Moses could not overcome the rule of kings sin and death, but freedom and victory come by means of the undeserved kindness of God through Jesus Christ.—Rom. 5:20, 21; 6:14; 7:8, 9, 24, 25.
“LAW OF FAITH”
The “law of faith” is contrasted with “that of works.” Man cannot attain to righteousness by his own works or those of the law of Moses, as though earning righteousness as pay for works, but righteousness comes by faith in Jesus Christ. (Rom. 3:27, 28; 4:4, 5; 9:30-32) James says, however, that such faith will be accompanied by works as a result of one’s faith and in harmony with it.—Jas. 2:17-26.
LAW OF HUSBAND
A married woman is under obligation to the “law of her husband.” (Rom. 7:2; 1 Cor. 7:39) The principle of husbandly headship holds true throughout the entire organization of God and has been in operation among those worshiping God, as well as among many other peoples. God occupies the position of a husband to his “woman,” the “Jerusalem above.” (Gal. 4:26, 31; Rev. 12:1, 4-6, 13-17) The Jewish national organization was in relationship of a wife to Jehovah as husband.—Isa. 54:5, 6; Jer. 31:32.
In patriarchal law the husband was the undisputed head of the family, the wife being in submission, though she could make recommendations subject to the husband’s approval. (Gen. 21:8-14) Sarah called Abraham “lord.” (Gen. 18:12; 1 Pet. 3:5, 6) A head covering was worn by the woman as a sign of her subjection to her husbandly head.—Gen. 24:65; 1 Cor. 11:5.
Under the Law given to Israel the wife was in subjection. Vows she made were subject to the husband to allow or annul. (Num. 30:6-16) She did not inherit, but went along with the land inheritance, and in the event that the inheritance was repurchased by a kinsman, she was included. (Ruth 4:5, 9-11) She could not divorce her husband, but the husband had the right to divorce his wife.—Deut. 24:1-4.
In the Christian arrangement, the woman is required to recognize the man’s position and not usurp it. The apostle Paul speaks of the married woman as being under the law of her husband as long as he is alive, but points out that she is freed by his death, so that she is not an adulteress if she then remarries.—Rom. 7:2, 3; 1 Cor. 7:39.
“KINGLY LAW”
The “kingly law” is that of the great King Jehovah. (Jas. 2:8) The tenor of the Law covenant was love, and “you must love your neighbor as yourself” was the second of the commandments on which all the Law and the Prophets hung. (Matt. 22:37-40) Christians, though not under the Law covenant, are subject to the law of the King Jehovah and his Son, the King Jesus Christ, under the new covenant.
SOME FEATURES OF THE LAW COVENANT
I. CIVIL GOVERNMENT
A. Jehovah God the Supreme Sovereign
1. The administrative, legislative and judicial Head of government and Head of religion (Isa. 33:22)
2. The one with sole right to delegate governmental authority (Dan. 4:25, 35; 7:13, 14)
3. “You must never have any other gods against my face,” that is, “in defiance of me” (Deut. 5:7; Ex. 20:3)
4. Idolatry forbidden (Ex. 20:4-6; Deut. 5:8-10)
a. Idolatry was lese majesty, treason against the sovereign power of the state, rebellion (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 8:19)
b. Names of other gods not to be mentioned (Ex. 23:13)
c. No form of God seen by Israelites to copy (Deut. 4:15-20)
B. Practices of false worship forbidden
1. Cutting sidelocks short, or cutting off extremity of beard (Lev. 19:27)
2. Making cuts in flesh for the dead (Lev. 19:28)
3. Tattooing bodies (Lev. 19:28)
4. Making baldness on oneself for the dead (Deut. 14:1) (The four preceding acts were practices of pagan religions.) (Jer. 48:36, 37)
5. Planting tree as sacred pole near altar of Jehovah (Deut. 16:21)
6. Stone figures, images, sacred high places of Canaanites not to be preserved (Num. 33:51, 52; Deut. 7:25)
7. Bringing things detestable, devoted to destruction, into one’s house (Deut. 7:26; 13:17)
8. Speaking of revolt against Jehovah as false prophet (Deut. 13:5)
9. Advocating false worship by anyone, to bring death penalty (Deut. 13:6-10; 17:2-7)
10. Cities going over to false worship; to be destroyed (Nothing of the city to be taken; all to be burned, except that gold, silver, copper, iron, were to be given to treasure of Jehovah’s sanctuary.) (Deut. 13:12-16; Josh. 6:19, 24)
11. Devoting of offspring to other gods, to be punished by death (Lev. 18:21, 29)
12. Practicing interfaith
a. No covenant permitted with pagan gods or nations of Canaan (Ex. 23:32; 34-12)
b. Not to go by statutes of Egypt or Canaan (Lev. 18:3-5)
C. Rulers in Israel
1. King to be chosen by Jehovah, not elected; could not be foreigner (Deut. 17:15)
a. Not to increase horses (Deut. 17:16)
b. Not to multiply wives nor increase silver and gold (Deut. 17:17)
c. To write a personal copy of Jehovah’s law and read in it every day (Deut. 17:18, 19)
2. Inferior officers
a. Chieftains of tribes (Num. 1:4, 16, 44)
b. Officers, chiefs of thousands and of hundreds (Num. 31:14)
c. Other chiefs over fifties and over tens (Ex. 18:21, 25)
3. Rulers to be respected (Ex. 22:28)
D. Census taken by Moses at Jehovah’s command (Num. 1:1-3; 3:14, 15; 4:1-3; 26:2)
1. All men twenty years old and upward taxed one-half shekel when census taken after coming out of Egypt. (Ex. 30:11-16) Though it may have been done, there is no record of its being commanded by Jehovah at other times
E. Membership in the congregation of Israel—including enjoying privileges and obligations enjoined on Israelites, entering temple precincts, partaking of passover, etc.
1. All male Jews entitled to citizenship, with following exceptions:
a. No man castrated by crushing testicles or having male member cut off (Deut. 23:1)
b. Neither an illegitimate son nor his descendants to tenth generation (Deut. 23:2)
2. No Ammonite or Moabite man to time indefinite, because they would not extend hospitality but opposed Israel upon exodus from Egypt (Deut. 23:3-6)
3. Edomites not to be detested
4. Egyptians of third generation of those who had lived as foreign residents in Israel could be admitted (Deut. 23:7, 8)
F. Aliens
1. Three kinds of these
a. The circumcised alien resident
b. The uncircumcised alien resident or settler in the land (Lev. 25:47)
c. The uncircumcised foreigner passing through or temporarily residing in the land (Deut. 15:3)
2. Such were not to be mistreated (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 24:17)
3. Circumcised alien resident to observe Passover (Ex. 12:48, 49; Num. 9:14); must offer up sacrifices (Num. 15:14-16)
4. Aliens could not own Hebrew slaves permanently; Israelites were Jehovah’s slaves, on God’s land that he had assigned to them (Lev. 25:47-49, 55)
5. Release from being pressed for payment of debt on the seventh year did not apply to foreigners (Deut. 15:1-3); could also be made to pay interest (Deut. 23:20)
6. A dead animal might be given or sold to the uncircumcised alien resident or the foreigner, for such were not worshipers of Jehovah; hence, eating it would not violate their consciences (Deut. 14:21) (A circumcised alien resident was thus obligated to obey the entire Law, but even the uncircumcised stranger logically could not flagrantly infringe on any fundamental laws of the land.)
G. Slaves and slavery
1. Slaves could be bought or persons could sell themselves into slavery for debt (Ex. 21:2; Lev. 25:39, 45, 47, 48); or one could be sold if he could not make compensation for theft (Ex. 22:3)
2. No Hebrews, only foreigners, resident aliens or settlers could be permanent slaves. (Lev. 25:44-46) But see point 4, which follows
3. Hebrew slave was released in seventh year of his (or her) servitude or at Jubilee year, whichever came first. During slavery, to be treated as hired laborer, with kindness (Ex. 21:2; Deut. 15:12; Lev. 25:10)
a. If man came in with wife, she went out or was freed with him (Ex. 21:3)
b. If master gave him a wife (evidently a foreigner) while he was in slavery, only he went free; if this wife had borne him children, she and children remained property of master (Ex. 21:4)
4. In his seventh year of servitude, year of his release, Hebrew slave could remain with master if the slave desired (Ex. 21:5, 6; Deut. 15:16, 17)
5. If Hebrew sold his daughter to another Hebrew, he could take her as concubine; otherwise she could be redeemed but not sold to foreigner. If, however, the master designated her the wife of his son, she had to be treated with right of daughter. The son was required to give her undiminished sustenance, clothing and marriage due, even if he took another wife. If he did not do so, she was to be freed without a redemption price (Ex. 21:7-11)
6. Non-Hebrew slaves could be passed on from father to son (Lev. 25:44-46)
7. Women captives were considered as spoil (Deut. 20:14); could be taken as slaves (Judg. 5:30) or could be taken by soldiers as wives after following certain required procedure. If later displeasing to husband, she was to be sent away agreeably to her own soul (Deut. 21:10-14)
8. Slave could be flogged by master. (Ex. 21:20, 21) If maimed, was given freedom (Ex. 21:26, 27)
9. Slave who died under his master’s beating: master could be punished by death to avenge slave. Judges would decide the penalty (Ex. 21:20, 21; Lev. 24:17)
10. All male slaves had to be circumcised (Gen. 17:12; Ex. 12:44)
11. Circumcised slaves could eat passover, and slaves of priest could eat holy things (Ex. 12:43, 44; Lev. 22:10, 11)
12. Compensation to master for a slave gored by bull was thirty shekels (Ex. 21:32)
13. If Hebrew had sold himself as slave to alien resident or to a settler, the Hebrew could be repurchased by one with repurchase right or by himself at any time, amount based on number of years until Jubilee year or until his seventh year, the year of release (Lev. 25:47-52; Deut. 15:12)
14. On freeing Hebrew slave, master had to give him gift according to his ability to give (Deut. 15:13-15)
15. Forced return of fugitive slave forbidden (apparently applied to a slave who fled from a master in a foreign land, seeking refuge in Israel) (Deut. 23:15, 16)
II. MILITARY LAWS
A. Wars were wars of Jehovah. (Num. 21:14; 2 Chron. 20:15) Therefore soldiers were sanctified before going into battle (1 Sam. 21:1-6; compare Leviticus 15:16, 18.)
B. Age of soldiers, twenty years old and upward (Num. 1:2, 3; 26:1-4) (According to Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book III, chap. XII, par. 4, they served up to age of fifty years.)
C. Exempted from military service
1. Levites, as ministers of Jehovah (Num. 1:47-49; 2:33)
2. Man who had not inaugurated newly built house (Deut. 20:5)
3. Man who had not used newly planted vineyard (Deut. 20:6) (These latter two exemptions harmonize with principle that man has right to enjoy fruits of his work [Eccl. 2:24; 3:12, 13].)
4. Man who had become engaged and had not yet taken his wife. The newly married man continued exempt one year (This exemption was based on right of man to have heir and to see this heir.) (Deut. 20:7; 24:5)
5. Man who was fearful. He would tend to break down morale of fellow soldiers (Deut. 20:8; Judg. 7:3)
D. Since soldiers were sanctified for warfare, cleanliness was required in camp (Deut. 23:9-14)
1. No women allowed as “camp followers” for sex relations, because relations with women were abstained from during campaign. This ensured religious and physical cleanliness (Lev. 15:18; 1 Sam. 21:5; 2 Sam. 11:6-11)
2. No raping of women among enemy, for this would be fornication; and no marriage with such women until campaign was over. This not only provided for religious cleanliness but also was an inducement for enemy surrender, for they would be assured that their women would not be molested (Deut. 21:10-13)
E. Military procedure against enemy cities
1. If city attacked belonged to one of seven nations of land of Canaan mentioned at Deuteronomy 7:1, no surrender terms would be offered, but all inhabitants were to be devoted to destruction, including women and children. (Deut. 20:15-17; Josh. 11:11-14; Deut. 2:32-34; 3:1-7) If left in the land, these would be danger to continued relationship of Israel with Jehovah God. He had let them live in land until their iniquity had come to completion. (Gen. 15:13-21) With exception of Jericho (firstfruits of conquest of the land, devoted to Jehovah, from which city no personal spoil could be taken), spoil could be taken by Israelite soldiers from cities of these nations (Josh. 11:14)
2. In cities not belonging to the seven nations, terms of peace would first be proclaimed. (Deut. 20:10, 15) If city surrendered, inhabitants were put to forced labor. If they did not surrender, all males and all women not virgins were killed. Others were spared as captives. (Deut. 20:11-14; compare Numbers 31:7, 17, 18.) Killing all men removed danger of later revolt by city and also marriage of these men to Israelite women. These measures also helped to avoid phallic worship and diseases among Israelites
3. Trees producing food could not be cut down and used for siege works (Deut. 20:19, 20)
4. Horses were hamstrung to incapacitate them for battle and later were killed; chariots were burned (Josh. 11:6)
III. JUDICIAL SYSTEM
A. Priests, kings, and other men appointed as judges sat in judgment of cases (Ex. 18:25, 26; Num. 11:16, 17, 24, 25; Deut. 16:18; 17:8, 9; 1 Ki. 3:6, 9-12; 2 Chron. 19:5, 8-11)
B. Standing before judges was considered as standing before Jehovah (Deut. 1:17; 19:16, 17)
C. All ordinary cases were submitted to judges. At times these could judge murder cases. Levites were used extensively in lower courts (Ex. 18:21, 22; Deut. 25:1, 2; 1 Chron. 23:3, 4; 2 Chron. 19:8-10)
D. If lower court could not make decision, case would go to higher courts (Ex. 18:25, 26; Deut. 1:17; 17:8-11; 1 Ki. 3:16, 28)
E. Exceptional or hard cases were taken to the priests
1. Cases of jealousy or unchastity of wife (Num. 5:12-15)
2. Where witness charged another with revolt (Deut. 19:16, 17)
3. Every violent deed, or one causing bloodshed, where decision was hard, or where disputed (Deut. 17:8, 9; 21:5)
4. Where man was found slain in field and murderer could not be identified, priests were called in along with elders of city nearest crime’s location (Deut. 21:1-9)
F. Accidental manslayer could flee to refuge city. Then trial held before assembly, that is, in jurisdiction where alleged accident occurred. If found to be truly accidental, unintentional manslayer was returned to his city of refuge. If he was deliberate murderer, he would be put to death (Josh. 20:1-6; Num. 35:12, 22-25; Deut. 19:4-7)
G. At least two eyewitnesses required to establish truth (Deut. 17:6; 19:15; Num. 35:30)
1. Witness was to testify to that which he knew, and was not to take up untrue report (Lev. 5:1; Prov. 29:24; Ex. 23:1)
2. Hands of witnesses must be first to come upon guilty one and put him to death. This promoted zeal for righteousness in Israel and was deterrent to false, hasty or careless testimony (Deut. 17:7)
H. Father could not be put to death for sin of his son nor son for sin of father (Deut. 24:16)
I. Custody exercised only until case was decided by Jehovah. No sentences to imprisonment according to Law. (Lev. 24:11-16, 23; Num. 15:32-36) Later on, as nation deteriorated, and during time of Gentile domination, imprisonment was practiced (2 Chron. 18:25, 26; Jer. 20:2; 29:26; Ezra 7:26)
J. Strokes in punishment limited to forty, to avoid disgraceful beating (Deut. 25:1-3)
K. Death sentence, usually by stoning. (Deut. 13:10) Sometimes criminal’s body, after stoning to death, was put on a stake as one accursed and as warning example (Deut. 21:22, 23)
L. Burning. Criminal was first put to death, then dead body burned as something detestable (Josh. 7:24, 25)
M. Law of retaliation—retribution, a like punishment (Lev. 24:17-21)
N. Damages
1. For letting animals graze in another’s field or vineyard: compensation with best of his own field or vineyard (because animals’ owner gained by their eating) (Ex. 22:5)
2. For kindling fire that damaged another’s property: compensation (Ex. 22:6)
3. For killing domestic animal: full compensation (Lev. 24:18, 21)
4. Animal killing another animal: sell live one and divide price, also divide price of dead animal (Ex. 21:35)
5. For bull having habit of goring, but not under guard: compensation with live bull for dead one, but dead one would go to owner of goring bull (he could sell it) (Ex. 21:36; see IV, F, 9, below.)
6. Unintentional sin against the holy things of Jehovah (Lev. 5:15, 16)
a. Unintentional appropriation to one’s own use of something “holy,” such as tithes, firstfruits, sacrifices, and so forth
b. Must confess what he had done (Compare Leviticus 5:5, 16.)
c. Compensation plus 20 percent to be given to sanctuary, besides offering ram of guilt offering, according to estimated value (apparently the value the priest assessed commensurate with the seriousness of guilt)
7. Deceiving one’s associate about something in his charge or a deposit in hand or a robbery, or finding something and being deceptive about it and swearing falsely concerning these things (Lev. 6:2-7)
a. Must confess what he has done (Compare Leviticus 5:5; 6:5.)
b. Must return to the owner the thing in question, adding 20 percent (compare Matthew 5:23, 24); if associate had died or could not be found, payment went to a near relative; if no relative, payment went to the sanctuary (Num. 5:6-8)
c. Must offer ram according to the estimated value (apparently the value the priest assessed commensurate with the seriousness of guilt)
8. For loss of animal falling into pit: compensation, but owner of the pit got dead animal (which he could sell to recover some of his loss) (Ex. 21:33, 34)
O. Bailments
1. Money or other articles given to another to be kept for safekeeping
a. If a thief stole such, double compensation from thief if he was found (Ex. 22:7)
b. If thief was not found, owner, of house (bailee) must take oath as to whether he put his hand upon goods. Then this oath was to be accepted by owner of article and no compensation made (Ex. 22:8, 10, 11)
c. If an animal had been lost, or anything identifiable, double compensation would be assessed on one unlawfully holding it (Ex. 22:9)
2. If ass, bull or sheep or any domestic animal left with someone died, got maimed, or was led off (wandered off or was driven away by robbers) while no one was looking (no eyewitnesses), bailee must take oath that he did not put his hand on animal, and no compensation was required (Ex. 22:10, 11)
a. If animal was stolen from bailee, he must make compensation (Ex. 22:12) (Usually kept in pen or under guard at night.)
b. If animal was torn by wild beast, he must bring it as evidence, but no compensation was required (Ex. 22:13)
3. Animals borrowed for use
a. If it was maimed or died while its owner was not with it, compensation required (Ex. 22:14)
b. If its owner was with it, no compensation (Ex. 22:15)
c. If hired, it must come in its hire (because owner was getting money by hiring the animal out); no compensation (Ex. 22:15)
IV. CRIMINAL LAW
A. Bribery forbidden (Ex. 23:8; Deut. 16:19; 27:25)
B. Perjury forbidden. (Deut. 5:20; Ex. 20:16; 23:1; Lev. 19:12; Deut. 19:16-20) If perjury was false accusation against another person, then false witness would receive retribution (Deut. 19:18, 19)
C. Willful defiance of law and contempt of priests or judges punishable with death (Num. 15:30, 31; Deut. 17:12, 13)
D. Perverting and obstructing justice forbidden (Ex. 23:1, 2, 6, 7; Lev. 19:15, 35; Deut. 16:19)
E. Crimes against Jehovah God
1. Blasphemy; death penalty (Lev. 24:16)
2. Apostasy, sacrificing to other gods; death penalty (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 13:6-11)
3. Sorcery and spiritism; both carried death penalty (Ex. 22:18; Deut. 18:10-12)
4. False prophets to be put to death (Deut. 13:1-5; 18:20-22)
5. Desecration of sabbath day; violation of fourth commandment. Death penalty (Num. 15:32-36)
6. Swearing in God’s name to a lie (Lev. 19:12)
F. Crimes against persons or property (See also point III, N, “Damages.”)
1. Murder; violation of sixth commandment. Death penalty. (Ex. 20:13; Deut. 5:17; compare Genesis 9:6.) Hating person in past would be evidence against manslayer who claimed death to be accidental (Deut. 19:4-6)
2. Striking or cursing father or mother or son’s being incorrigibly rebellious; death penalty (Ex. 21:15, 17; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 21:18-21)
3. Pregnant woman accidentally injured in struggle between men: law of retaliation applied if accident resulted in fatality; if no fatal accident occurred, damages would be imposed by owner of woman (Ex. 21:22-25)
4. Assault where person recovers. Penalty: compensation for time lost from work (Ex. 21:18, 19)
5. Fornication with maidservant designated for another man, but not yet redeemed nor freed. Not the death penalty, but guilt offering to Jehovah required and punishment to be determined by judges (Lev. 19:20-22)
6. Stealing
a. Bull or sheep, if thief slaughtered or sold it. Compensation: five bulls, or four sheep (Ex. 22:1)
b. If live animal stolen was in his possession, he must make double compensation (Ex. 22:4)
c. If he had nothing, he was to be sold into slavery for things he stole (Ex. 22:3)
d. Items other than livestock stolen: double compensation (Ex. 22:7)
7. Burglary. If burglary took place in daytime, householder would have bloodguilt if he killed burglar. This was because burglar could be described or identified and apprehended by proper authorities. If burglary took place at night (motive of housebreaker unknown; it might be murder) and householder killed burglar while defending his property (and perhaps even his life), there would be no bloodguilt upon him (Ex. 22:2, 3)
8. Kidnapping. Kidnapper who sold a man, or one in whose hand the victim was found, would be put to death (Ex. 21:16; Deut. 24:7)
9. Assault by beast resulting in death. Beast must die, its flesh not to be eaten, but its owner remained free (Ex. 21:28)
a. If bull was in habit of goring and owner had been officially warned, but beast not kept under guard, bull to be stoned and the owner to die, or ransom for owner’s life to be imposed according to price judges determined (Ex. 21:29-31)
b. If one killed was slave man or slave girl, thirty shekels of silver to be given to slave’s master; bull to be stoned (Ex. 21:32)
10. Slander prohibited; could amount to standing up “against your fellow’s blood” (Might result in fellowman’s being killed or his being brought to court and sentenced to death, if slander included such serious accusations.) (Lev. 19:16; Ex. 23:1)
11. Using false weights and measures prohibited (Lev. 19:35-37; Deut. 25:13-16)
12. Moving boundary marks prohibited (Deut. 19:14)
G. Crimes against morality
1. Adultery forbidden; violation of seventh commandment. (Ex. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; Deut. 5:18; 22:22-24) Death penalty for both parties (Lev. 20:10)
2. Secret adultery on part of woman; penalty, belly to swell and thigh to fall away (euphemistic expression for atrophy of reproductive organs); she was to become a cursing among people. (Law required two eyewitnesses to adultery before judges could impose death penalty.) If innocent of charge, she was to be made pregnant by her husband (manifestation before all of her innocence and blessing of fruit of womb) (Num. 5:11-31)
3. Previous secret fornication on part of girl who marries while claiming to be a virgin. If husband charges wife was not virgin at time of marriage, parents to bring evidence of girl’s virginity before older men at gate of city. If charge is true, no such evidence being found, girl to be put to death. If charge false, man to pay fine of double the price for virgins (2 x 50 shekels) and could never divorce her (Deut. 22:13-21; compare Deuteronomy 22:28, 29.)
4. Attack on engaged girl by a man
a. If in city, girl must scream out, or was guilty (Deut. 22:23, 24)
b. If in field, girl who screamed (though no one heard to come to her rescue) was not guilty (Deut. 22:25-27)
c. Penalty was death for man. If girl consented or did not scream, she too was guilty and the penalty was death (Deut. 22:23-27)
5. Seduction of girl not engaged; man must pay father at rate of purchase money for virgins. Marriage to take place and man unable to divorce her all his days. If father refuses to give girl, man must nevertheless pay over money (Deut. 22:28, 29; Ex. 22:16, 17)
6. Prostitution forbidden (Deut. 23:17, 18; Lev. 19:29)
7. Priest’s daughter committing prostitution. Death, and burning afterward (She profanes her father and his sacred office.) (Lev. 21:9)
H. Incest. Marriage between certain relatives was forbidden
1. An Israelite man could not marry any of the following:
a. His mother, stepmother or a secondary wife of his father (Lev. 18:7, 8; 20:11; Deut. 22:30; 27:20)
b. His sister, stepsister or half sister (Lev. 18:9, 11; 20:17; Deut. 27:22)
c. His granddaughter (Lev. 18:10)
d. His aunt (either his mother’s sister or his father’s sister) (Lev. 18:12, 13; 20:19)
e. His aunt by marriage (either his father’s brother’s wife or his mother’s brother’s wife) (Lev. 18:14; 20:20)
f. His daughter-in-law (Lev. 18:15; 20:12)
g. His daughter, stepdaughter, stepdaughter’s daughter, stepson’s daughter, mother-in-law (Lev. 18:17; 20:14; Deut. 27:23)
h. Brother’s widow (Lev. 18:16; 20:21) (unless brother-in-law marriage necessary due to his death without a son—Deut. 25:5, 6)
i. His wife’s sister during his wife’s lifetime (Lev. 18:18)
2. An Israelite woman could not marry any of the following:
a. Her son or her stepson (Lev. 18:7, 8; 20:11; Deut. 22:30; 27:20)
b. Her brother, stepbrother or half brother (Lev. 18:9, 11; 20:17; Deut. 27:22)
c. Her grandfather (Lev. 18:10)
d. Her nephew (either her brother’s son or her sister’s son) (Lev. 18:12, 13; 20:19)
e. Her nephew (either her husband’s brother’s son or her husband’s sister’s son) (Lev. 18:14; 20:20)
f. Her father-in-law (Lev. 18:15; 20:12)
g. Her father, stepfather, mother’s stepfather, father’s stepfather, son-in-law (Lev. 18:7, 17; 20:14; Deut. 27:23)
h. Her husband’s brother (Lev. 18:16; 20:21) (unless brother-in-law marriage necessary due to husband’s death without a son—Deut. 25:5, 6)
i. Her sister’s husband during her sister’s lifetime (Lev. 18:18)
3. Penalty for incest: death (Lev. 18:29; 20:11, 12, 14, 17, 20, 21)
I. Intercourse with woman during menstruation forbidden. (Lev. 18:19) Death penalty. (Lev. 20:18) However, husband who had intercourse with her during such uncleanness (perhaps at unexpected beginning of menstruation, unwittingly) was unclean seven days (Lev. 15:19-24)
J. Deception, dealing falsely (Lev. 19:11)
K. Calling down evil on deaf man (Lev. 19:14)
L. Putting obstacle before blind man (Lev. 19:14)
M. Taking vengeance or bearing grudge counseled against (Lev. 19:18)
N. Covetousness prohibited. Violation of tenth commandment (Ex. 20:17; Deut. 5:21)
O. Wearing dress of opposite sex (to deceive for immoral purposes) prohibited (Deut. 22:5)
P. Indecent assault (woman in husband’s fight grabs hold of other man’s privates); penalty, amputation of her hand, instead of penalty of like for like, out of Jehovah’s regard for her reproductive powers and her husband’s right to have children by her (Deut. 25:11, 12)
Q. Sodomy; death penalty (Lev. 18:22; 20:13)
R. Bestiality; death penalty for person and beast (Ex. 22:19; Lev. 18:23, 29; 20:15, 16; Deut. 27:21)
V. MARRIAGE
A. Performed first by Jehovah (Gen. 2:18, 21-24)
B. Could be arranged between parents or by suitor with parents or guardians (Patriarchal principle at Genesis 24:2-4, 48-53; 29:18, 22-28 followed.—Judg. 14:1-4.)
C. Women must marry within tribe, if heirs of land (Num. 36:6-9)
D. Marriage compulsory after seduction (unless father of girl would not permit) and no divorce allowed. In either case, dowry to be paid (Ex. 22:16, 17; Deut. 22:28, 29)
E. Priests could not marry prostitute, violated woman or divorced woman. (Lev. 21:7) According to Ezekiel 44:22, priests could marry virgins of house of Israel or widow of another priest. High priest could take only virgin from his people as wife (Lev. 21:13, 14)
F. Levirate or brother-in-law marriage (to marry brother’s widow where deceased brother had no male offspring). One refusing to carry out levirate marriage was reproached (Deut. 25:5-10)
G. Marriage alliances with aliens forbidden. (Ex. 34:12-16; Deut. 7:1-4; Neh. 13:23-27) However, marriage with captive women permitted (Deut. 21:10-14)
H. Wife considered property of husband. (Deut. 5:21; 24:1; Ex. 20:17; Prov. 31:10, 11, 28) If wife made vow, her husband could affirm or cancel it (Num. 30:6-8, 10-15)
I. Divorce
1. Only husband was allowed to divorce (for something indecent on wife’s part) He was required to give wife written certificate of divorce (Deut. 24:1-4)
2. No divorce allowed if husband had married wife after seducing her (Deut. 22:28, 29)
3. Man could not remarry woman he divorced after she had married again, either if second man divorced her or died (Deut. 24:1-4)
VI. PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS
A. Children owed honor to parents (Ex. 20:12; 21:15, 17; Lev. 19:3; 20:9; Deut. 5:16; 21:18-21; 27:16)
B. Parents (especially fathers) commanded to teach children God’s law (Deut. 6:6-9, 20-25; 11:18-21; Isa. 38:19)
C. Father could affirm or disallow vow made by his unmarried daughter still in his house (Num. 30:3-5)
D. Father could arrange for marriage of sons (Judg. 14:2; compare Genesis 24:2-4; 28:1, 2.)
E. Parents could devote children to Jehovah’s sanctuary service (1 Sam. 1:11, 24-28; Judg. 11:30, 31, 39, 40)
F. Father could sell his daughter into slavery (Ex. 21:7)
VII. LAWS OF INHERITANCE
A. Firstborn son inherited double share of property (Deut. 21:15-17)
B. Firstborn son normally had authority next to family head (1 Sam. 17:28; 20:29)
C. Father was prohibited from taking right of firstborn and giving it to son of another wife on the basis that his firstborn was son of “hated” wife (Deut. 21:15-17)
D. Wife was not heir of husband, but if he died childless, she could be redeemed by one with right of repurchase along with property through levirate marriage arrangement (Ruth 4:1-12)
E. When there was no son, inheritance went to daughters. (Num. 27:6-8) If man had neither sons nor daughters, inheritance went to his brothers, or his father’s brothers, or his nearest blood relative (Num. 27:9-11)
F. Under levirate marriage law firstborn of deceased one’s brother by the dead man’s widow became heir of the property of the deceased (Deut. 25:5, 6)
G. Non-Israelite slaves could be inherited (Lev. 25:44-46)
H. Inheritance within one tribe could not be transferred to another tribe (Num. 36:1-12)
VIII. REAL PROPERTY
(Land, Buildings and Improvements Attached to Land)
A. Canaan, by command of Jehovah, was allotted among various tribes (Num. 26:52-56; Josh. 13:7-33; 18:2-10)
B. Land was allotted to families (Num. 33:54; 36:2)
1. One could not sell his land in perpetuity; land itself could not actually be sold, only value of its produce computed to year of Jubilee as price for possession till Jubilee (Lev. 25:15, 16, 23-28)
2. In case of houses in walled city, only one year was allowed for redemption, after which, if not redeemed, it was held by purchaser in perpetuity (except for Levite houses in their cities). Right of repurchase continued for houses in unwalled settlements, and such houses went out in the Jubilee (Lev. 25:29-31)
3. If there was a sale, nearest kinsman had right to buy (Jer. 32:7-15)
C. Share of Levites consisted of cities and their pasture grounds (48 allotted; 13 were priests’ cities.) (Num. 35:2-5; Josh. 21:3-42)
1. Levites as individuals had no material inheritance (Deut. 18:1, 2)
2. Field of pasture ground of a Levite city could not be sold; belonged to city, not individuals (Lev. 25:34)
D. If man sanctified (set aside the use or production of) part of a field to Jehovah (sanctuary use, priesthood), estimation of its value was on basis of area of ground that could be seeded by homer of barley. This area would be worth fifty shekels of silver, diminishing proportionately according to number of years left until next Jubilee (Lev. 27:16-18)
1. If sanctifier wanted to buy it back, he had to add 20 percent; otherwise it returned to him at Jubilee (Lev. 27:19)
2. If he did not buy it back but it was sold to another man, it could not be bought back again. At Jubilee it became possession of priest as holy to Jehovah (Lev. 27:20, 21)
3. If a man sanctified to Jehovah part of field he had purchased from another, at Jubilee it returned to original holder (Lev. 27:22-24)
E. If a man “devoted” anything of his own property (“devoted” things were permanently and solely for sanctuary use or for destruction [Josh. 6:17; 7:1, 15])—field, cattle or other thing, it could not be sold or bought back; it remained Jehovah’s (“as a field that is devoted” it could not be bought back) (Lev. 27:21, 28, 29)
F. The state did not have right of eminent domain, that is, right to seize one’s land inheritance for public purposes simply by paying compensation (1 Ki. 21:2-4)
G. Redemption of property
1. All land returned to original possessor at time of Jubilee (with previously noted exceptions) (Lev. 25:8-10, 15, 16, 24-28)
2. Levites might redeem their houses in Levite cities at any time (Lev. 25:32, 33)
H. Modes of transfer and recording
1. Deeds were sometimes used (Jer. 32:9-14)
2. Repurchasing of property by another when the one with first right of repurchase refused (Ruth 4:3-11)
I. Sabbath year: land was to lie fallow; owner not to gather in any harvest, but he and poor persons and animals could eat what grew of itself; for most part, people ate from stored-up provisions (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:1-7, 20-22)
J. Jubilee year: began on Day of Atonement, in fiftieth year; counting started from year Israelites entered land (Lev. 25:2, 8-19)
IX. INDIVIDUAL CONDUCT AND DUTIES
A. Love for God (Deut. 6:4, 5; 11:1; 30:16, 19, 20)
B. Love for fellowman (Lev. 19:18; Deut. 10:19)
C. Fear of God (Deut. 5:29; 6:1, 2, 10-13, 24; 8:6, 10; 10:12, 20; 14:23; 17:19)
D. Congregating or assembling (Deut. 31:10-13)
1. All males to assemble three times a year: Passover and Festival of Unfermented Cakes, Festival of Weeks and Festival of Booths (Deut. 16:16; Lev. 23:1-43)
2. Man deliberately neglecting to keep Passover “cut off,” put to death (Num. 9:13)
E. Must keep vows; man or woman could take Nazirite vow (Deut. 23:21-23; Num. 6:2-12; 30:2)
1. Vow of daughter living in father’s house dependent on father (Num. 30:3-5)
2. Vow of engaged or married woman dependent on husband (Num. 30:6-8, 10-15)
F. Priests should not drink wine before going into sanctuary to serve; death penalty (Lev. 10:8, 9)
G. Respect for rulers (Ex. 22:28)
H. Wives’ duty to be in subjection to husbands. (Husband called “owner” [Ex. 21:22; Prov. 31:10, 11]) (Compare Genesis 3:16; 18:12; Romans 7:2; 1 Peter 3:1, 5, 6.)
I. To honor parents (Ex. 20:12; 21:15, 17)
J. Duties toward widows and orphans (Ex. 22:22-24; Deut. 24:17; 27:19)
K. Toward the poor (Ex. 23:6; Lev. 25:35, 39-43)
L. Toward alien residents (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 10:17-19; 24:14, 15, 17; 27:19)
M. Toward needy and defenseless (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 24:14, 17; 27:18)
N. Toward slaves and hired laborers (Ex. 21:2; 23:12; Deut. 24:14, 15; 15:12-15)
O. Respect for aged (Lev. 19:32)
P. To act justly (Ex. 23:2, 3, 6; Lev. 19:15, 35)
Q. To return lost item to owner when found; if owner far away and unknown, item must be kept for owner until he searches for it (Deut. 22:1-3)
R. To construct parapet on house (to avoid bloodguilt due to person falling off roof) (Deut. 22:8)
S. Gleaning (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 19:9, 10; 23:22; Deut. 24:19-21)
T. Not to interbreed two sorts of animals, sow field with two sorts of seeds or wear garment of two sorts of thread, mixed, or plow with a bull and ass together (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9-11)
U. To animals
1. To beasts of burden (Ex. 23:12; Deut. 22:10; Prov. 12:10)
2. To the threshing bull (Deut. 25:4)
3. To wild animals (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:5-7)
4. To mother and young (Lev. 22:28; Deut. 22:6, 7)
5. To help another’s animal in distress (Ex. 23:5; Deut. 22:4)
X. SANITARY AND DIETARY LAWS
(These served both to keep the Israelites separate from the pagan nations and to promote cleanliness and health.)
A. Flesh of clean animals could be eaten (Lev. 11:1-31; Deut. 12:20)
B. Eating of blood strictly forbidden (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 7:26; 17:12, 14; 19:26; Deut. 12:16, 23-25); penalty for violation: death (Lev. 7:27; 17:10)
1. Life (soul) is in blood (Lev. 17:11, 14; Deut. 12:23)
2. Blood of slaughtered animal must be poured out on ground like water and covered with dust (Lev. 17:13; Deut. 12:16)
3. No animal dying of itself or found dead could be eaten (because it was unclean and had not been properly drained of blood) (Deut. 14:21)
4. Only legal uses: blood was put upon altar for atonement; prescribed cleansing purposes (Lev. 17:11, 12; Deut. 12:27; Num. 19:1-9)
C. No fat to be eaten; fat belonged to Jehovah (Lev. 3:16, 17; 7:23, 24)
1. Fat from dead body or animal torn to pieces could be used in some other way, but could not be eaten (Lev. 7:24)
2. Eating fat of offering brought death penalty (Lev. 7:25)
D. Under Law, in wilderness all domestic animals to be slaughtered must be brought to tabernacle. They would be eaten as communion sacrifices (Lev. 17:3-6)
1. Penalty for violation, death (Lev. 17:4, 8, 9)
2. Wild animals caught in hunting could be killed on the spot; blood must be poured out (Lev. 17:13, 14)
3. After entering Promised Land, clean animals could be slaughtered for food in the place of one’s residence if he was far from Jerusalem, but blood had to be poured on ground (Deut. 12:20-25)
E. Animals, fish, birds, insects permitted or prohibited for food
1. Every creature that splits hoof, forming a cleft therein, and chews cud permitted (Lev. 11:2, 3; Deut. 14:6)
2. Prohibited animals: (a) Camel (chews cud only; does not have split hoofs; hoof split on top, but not clear through; only forepart divided) (b) Rock badger (chews cud only); (c) Hare (chews cud only); (d) Pig (splits hoof only) (Lev. 11:4-8; Deut. 14:7, 8; see articles on animals under individual names.)
3. Everything in the waters that has fins and scales permitted (Lev. 11:9-12; Deut. 14:9, 10)
4. Prohibited among birds and flying creatures: Eagle (bird of prey of falcon family [Prov. 30:17]); osprey (a large hawk; fish hawk); black vulture (a carrion eater); red kite (bird of prey, hawk family); black kite; glede; raven; ostrich; owl (bird of prey; voracious); gull (scavenger); falcon (bird of prey); little owl; long-eared owl; swan; pelican; vulture (carrion eater); cormorant; stork; heron; hoopoe (has filthy habits); bat; any winged swarming creature that goes on all fours (that is, having locomotion in the manner of animals that walk on four legs) (Deut. 14:12-19; Lev. 11:13-20; see BIRDS and articles on individual birds.)
5. Permitted among insects and winged swarming creatures: all that go upon all fours and have leaper legs. Migratory locust, edible locust, cricket and grasshopper (all according to their kinds) (Lev. 11:21, 22; see articles on individual insects.)
6. Prohibited among the swarming creatures on the earth: Mole rat; jerboa (jumping rodent with long hind legs); lizard; gecko fanfoot (a small lizard); large lizard; newt (form of salamander); sand lizard; chameleon (color-changing lizard); any creature that goes upon the belly, on all fours (style of locomotion), or on any great number of feet (Lev. 11:29, 30, 42; see articles on individual creatures.)
7. Animal that died of itself or was already dead or torn by wild beast could not be eaten; if torn by wild beast, to be thrown to dogs (even if such animal was normally clean and so usable for food) (Lev. 17:15, 16; Deut. 14:21; Ex. 22:31)
8. Animals presented as vow or voluntary offerings, communion sacrifices, could be eaten on day offered and on second but not on third day; penalty, death. Thanksgiving sacrifice to be eaten on that day—none to be saved over until morning (second day). Passover must not be left over; what was not eaten to be burned (Lev. 7:16-18; 19:5-8; 22:29, 30; Ex. 12:10)
F. Things making unclean
1. All prohibited creatures, if eaten or if dead bodies are touched. Clean animal that died of itself, if touched, person unclean till evening; if one ate or carried it, must wash garments (Lev. 11:8, 11, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 36, 39, 40; 17:15, 16)
2. Vessels, jar stands, ovens, garments, skins, sackcloth, unclean by reason of contact with dead bodies of unclean creatures (Lev. 11:32-35)
a. Earthenware vessels, ovens, jar stands, had to be broken (These were porous, more likely to retain uncleanness.) (Lev. 11:33-35)
b. Other vessels must be put in water; unclean until evening (Lev. 11:32)
c. Only spring and pit of impounded waters continued clean if dead unclean creature fell in (Lev. 11:34, 36)
d. Seeds not unclean, unless water had been put upon them (Water would cause uncleanness to penetrate seed.) (Lev. 11:37, 38)
3. Emission of semen; person to bathe and be unclean, until evening (Lev. 15:16)
a. Garment touched by semen washed and unclean until evening (Lev. 15:17)
b. Woman, in case of intercourse, to bathe and be unclean until evening (Lev. 15:18)
4. Women, due to childbirth
a. Woman unclean seven days after bearing a male, plus thirty-three days (first seven days, unclean to all, as in menstruation; thirty-three days unclean only as to touching holy things, such as sacrificial meals or coming into the holy place) (Lev. 12:2-4)
b. If child female, woman unclean fourteen days, plus sixty-six (shows priority of male) (Lev. 12:5)
5. Woman’s menstruation (Lev. 12:2)
a. Woman unclean seven days in regular menstruation; during entire period of abnormal or extended discharge of blood, plus seven days (Lev. 15:19, 25, 28)
b. During her uncleanness anything on which she may sit or lie down, unclean (Lev. 15:20)
c. Person touching her or her bed or what she sits on must wash garments and bathe and be unclean until evening (Lev. 15:21-23)
d. If her menstrual impurity comes to be upon a man, he is unclean seven days and any bed upon which he might lie is unclean (Lev. 15:24)
e. Any time she has running discharge she is unclean (Lev. 15:25-27)
G. Diseases
1. Leprosy and other plagues—priest determined whether leprosy or otherwise (Lev. 13:2)
a. Procedure: Person quarantined seven days; examined, and, if plague had stopped, quarantined seven more days (Lev. 13:4, 5, 21, 26); if plague had not spread, pronounced clean (Lev. 13:6); if plague spread, it was leprosy (Lev. 13:7, 8)
b. If leprous, person to have garments torn, his head should become ungroomed, he should cover over mustache (or upper lip); should call out “Unclean, unclean!” Dwelt isolated outside camp until plague cured (Lev. 13:31, 45, 46; Num. 5:2-4)
c. Baldness did not make one unclean (Lev. 13:40, 41)
2. Garments with malignant “leprosy” (perhaps a mold or mildew). Procedure: Quarantined seven days; if then leprous, burned. (Lev. 13:47-52) Otherwise, washed and quarantined another seven days; if spot dull after washing, spot torn out. If plague disappeared, washed again and considered clean (Lev. 13:53-59)
3. ‘Leprous’ house (perhaps affected with a fungus)
a. Procedure: First cleared out house and called priest (Lev. 14:36); quarantined seven days (Lev. 14:38); if then leprous, stones with plague torn out, thrown outside city in unclean place (Lev. 14:40); house scraped off all around inside, mortar poured outside city in unclean place (Lev. 14:41); new stones put in and house plastered (Lev. 14:42)
b. If plague returned, entire house pulled down (Lev. 14:43-45)
c. Anyone going into quarantined house unclean until evening (Lev. 14:46)
4. Genital discharge (evidently due to diseased condition) (Lev. 15:2, 3)
a. Bed or articles unclean if lain on or sat on by such person (Lev. 15:4)
b. Anyone touching the affected one, his bed or whatever he was sitting on, unclean, or if affected person spat on another, he was rendered unclean (Lev. 15:5-11)
c. Earthenware vessels smashed, wooden one rinsed with water, if touched by one having running discharge (Lev. 15:12)
d. After discharge stopped, person unclean seven days (Lev. 15:13)
5. Safeguarding military camp
a. Private place outside for each to cover excrement (Deut. 23:12, 13)
b. Pollution occurring at night made person unclean until next evening; he had to stay outside camp (Deut. 23:9-11)
6. Regulations concerning bodies of dead persons
a. Touching corpse, bone or burial place of human made one unclean seven days (even when on open field) (Num. 19:11, 16)
b. Death for refusing to purify self. (Num. 19:12, 13) (See cleansing procedure at Numbers 19:17-19.)
c. Opened vessel on which no lid tied down unclean, also all who were in or came Into tent (Num. 19:14, 15)
7. In spoil taken from city, everything that could be processed with fire should be so processed (metals), then passed through water for cleansing; other things must be washed (Num. 31:20, 22, 23)
XI. BUSINESS PRACTICES
A. Accurate scales, weights and measures (Lev. 19:35, 36; Deut. 25:13-15)
B. Proper calculation of value of land (based on time until Jubilee year) (Lev. 25:14-17)
C. Granting right of repurchase of land (Lev. 25:24)
D. Release at end of every seven years from pressure on Hebrew brothers to pay debts (Deut. 15:1, 2); could press foreigner for payment of debt (Deut. 15:3)
E. Hired laborers, in trouble or poor, whether of brothers or alien residents, must be paid that day (Deut. 24:14, 15)
F. If taking a person’s outer garment as security for a loan, one must not keep it overnight (The poor often slept in the garment for lack of other bedclothes. He might suffer from cold if deprived of it at night.) (Ex. 22:26, 27; Deut. 24:12, 13)
1. One could not enter another man’s house to get a pledge or something as security for a loan. He must remain outside the house and let the person bring it out to him (This maintained the inviolability of the man’s domain.) (Deut. 24:10, 11)
2. One could not take a hand mill or its upper grindstone for security (The person then could not grind grain for himself and family. Hence, “it is a soul that he is seizing as a pledge.”) (Deut. 24:6)