Kodi Talmud Nchiyani?
“Mosakayikira Talmud ndi buku limodzi mwa mabuku abwino koposa chikhalire.”—The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia.
“[Talmud ndi] imodzi mwa zinthu zazikulu kwambiri zimene munthu wachita mwaluntha, buku lakuya kwambiri, lachidziŵitso chachikulu, lovuta kumva moti latangwanitsa anthu anzeru kwambiri kwa zaka zoposa chikwi chimodzi ndi theka.”—Jacob Neusner, katswiri wamaphunziro ndiponso wolemba wachiyuda.
“Talmud ndiyo mzati wofunika koposa [wa Chiyuda] wochirikiza makhalidwe onse auzimu ndi luntha la moyo wachiyuda.”—Adin Steinsaltz, katswiri wamaphunziro a Talmud amenenso ndi rabi.
NDITHUDI Talmud yakhala ndi chisonkhezero chachikulu kwambiri kwa Ayuda kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Komabe, mosiyana ndi zitamando zogwidwa mawu pamwambapa, Talmud yanyozedwa ndipo yatchedwa kuti “mulu wa zinthu zachimbuuzi ndi thope.” Yatonzedwa kuti ili ntchito yamwano ya Mdyerekezi. Mwa lamulo loperekedwa ndi papa, mawu a m’bukuli asinthidwa mobwerezabwereza, ndipo makope ake ena analandidwa, ngakhale kutentha makope ake ochuluka pamabwalo apoyera ku Ulaya.
Kodi kwenikweni buku limene labutsa mkangano waukulu chonchi ndilo chiyani? Kodi nchiyani chimapangitsa kuti buku la Talmud likhale lapadera pakati pa zolembedwa za Ayuda? Kodi analilemberanji? Kodi lakhala motani ndi chisonkhezero chachikulu chonchi pa Chiyuda? Kodi lili ndi tanthauzo kwa anthu osakhala Ayuda?
Pazaka 150 kuchokera pamene kachisi anawonongedwa ku Yerusalemu mu 70 C.E., masukulu a maphunziro apamwamba a arabi anzeru m’Israyeli yense anafunafuna mwachangu maziko atsopano osungira mwambo wachiyuda. Iwo anakambitsirana pofuna kupatsana nzeru nasonkhanitsa miyambo yosiyanasiyana ya chilamulo chawo cha pakamwa. Mwa kugwiritsira ntchito maziko ameneŵa, iwo anaika malire atsopano ndiponso zofunikira zatsopano za Chiyuda, kupereka chitsogozo cha moyo wopatulika watsiku ndi tsiku popanda kachisi. Makonzedwe atsopano auzimu ameneŵa analongosoledwa m’buku la Mishnah, lokonzedwa ndi Judah ha-Nasi cha kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana lachitatu C.E.a
Buku la Mishnah linadziimira palokha, losafuna chichirikizo cha Baibulo. Kafotokozedwe kake ka zinthu ndiponso ngakhale kalembedwe kake ka Chihebri kanali kapadera, kosiyana ndi zolembedwa za m’Baibulo. Malingaliro a arabi ogwidwa mawu m’Mishnah anali kudzakhudza moyo watsiku ndi tsiku wa Ayuda kulikonse. Nchifukwa chakedi, Jacob Neusner akunenapo kuti: “Buku la Mishnah linalongosola malamulo a Israyeli. . . . Linafuna kuti anthu agwirizane ndi kutsatira malamulo ake.”
Koma bwanji ngati ena anakayikira zonena kuti ulamuliro wa amuna anzeru amenewo ogwidwa mawu m’Mishnah unali wolinganadi ndi Malemba ovumbulidwa? Arabi akanayenera kusonyeza kuti ziphunzitso za anthu otchedwa Tannaim (aphunzitsi a chilamulo cha pakamwa) zopezeka m’Mishnah zinali zogwirizana kotheratu ndi Malemba Achihebri. Panafunikira mafotokozedwe owonjezereka. Iwo anaona kuti akufunikira kufotokoza ndi kuchirikiza Mishnah ndi kupereka umboni wakuti bukulo linachokera m’Chilamulo choperekedwa kwa Mose pa Sinai. Arabi anakakamizika kupereka umboni wakuti chilamulo cha pakamwa ndi chilamulo cholembedwa zili ndi tanthauzo limodzi ndi cholinga chimodzi. Chotero, m’malo mokhala ulamuliro womaliza pa Chiyuda, Mishnah inakhala maziko atsopano a makambitsirano a zachipembedzo ndi mkangano.
Kupangidwa kwa Talmud
Arabi amene anayamba kuchita ntchito yatsopano imeneyi anatchedwa kuti a Amoraim—“omasulira,” kapena kuti “ofotokoza” Mishnah. Sukulu iliyonse ya maphunziro apamwamba inatsogozedwa ndi rabi wolemekezeka. Akatswiri angapo amaphunziro ndiponso ophunzira anali kukhala ndi makambitsirano chaka chonse. Koma makambitsirano aakulu kwambiri anali kukhalako kaŵiri pachaka, m’miyezi ya Adara ndi Eluli, pamene ntchito yolima inali yochepa ndiponso pamene anthu mazana kapenanso zikwi zambiri anatha kupezekapo.
Adin Steinsaltz anafotokoza kuti: “Mkulu wa sukuluyo ndiye anali kutsogolera makambitsiranowo, atakhala pampando kapena pamphasa yapadera. M’mizere yakutsogolo yoyang’anizana naye munali kukhala akatswiri ofunika kwambiri amaphunziro, kuphatikizapo anzake kapena ophunzira anzeru kwambiri, ndipo kumbuyo kwawo kunali kukhala akatswiri ena onse amaphunziro. . . . Kakhalidwe kawo kanali kutsatira magulu osiyanitsidwa bwino [malinga ndi kufunika kwawo].” Chigawo china cha m’Mishnah chinali kuŵerengedwa. Chimenechi anali kuchiyerekezera ndi mawu ena owonjezera ofanana nawo amene a Tannaim anasonkhanitsa koma amene mulibe m’Mishnah. Ndiye anali kuyamba kuwapenda. Mafunso anali kuperekedwa, ndipo mawu otsutsana anapendedwa kuti apeze kugwirizana kwenikweni kwa ziphunzitsozo. Mawu aumboni a m’Malemba Achihebri anali kufufuzidwa kuti achirikize ziphunzitso za arabi.
Ngakhale kuti makambitsirano ameneŵa analinganizidwa mosamala, iwo anali aakulu kwambiri, ndipo nthaŵi zina panali kupsetsana mtima. Mwamuna wina wanzeru wogwidwa mawu m’Talmud anasimba za “malaŵi a moto” otuluka pakamwa pa rabi kupita kwa rabi wina pochita mkanganowo. (Hullin 137b, Talmud ya ku Babulo) Steinsaltz anati ponena za makambitsiranowo: “Mkulu wa sukuluyo, kapena mwamuna wanzeru wotsogolera makambitsiranowo, anali kupereka mamasuliridwe akeake a mawu ovutawo. Akatswiri omvetserawo nthaŵi zambiri anali kumfunsa mafunso ambiri ozikidwa pa mfundo zimene anapeza kwina, malingaliro a othirira ndemanga ena, kapena malingaliro awo ozikidwa pa zopeza zawo. Nthaŵi zina mkanganowo unali kukhala waufupi ndiponso wongofuna yankho lolunjika pafunso lofunsidwalo. Nthaŵi zina akatswiri ena amaphunziro anali kupereka mafotokozedwe awo ndipo panali kubuka mkangano waukulu kwambiri.” Onse opezekapo anali aufulu kutengamo mbali. Nkhani zimene anavomerezana pamisonkhano imeneyo zinali kutumizidwa kumasukulu ena kuti akatswiri ena amaphunziro akazipende.
Komabe, misonkhano imeneyi sinali chabe mkangano wosatha wa zamalamulo. Nkhani zokhudza malamulo ndi njira ya moyo wachipembedzo wachiyuda zimatchedwa Halakah. Mawuwa amachokera patsinde la mawu achihebri akuti “kupita” ndipo amatanthauza ‘njira ya moyo imene munthu ayenera kutsatira.’ Nkhani zina zonse—nkhani zonena za arabi ndi anthu otchulidwa m’Baibulo, miyambi yanzeru, chikhulupiriro ndi filosofi—zimatchedwa Haggadah, mawu ochokera patsinde lachihebri lotanthauza “kuuza.” Halakah ndi Haggadah zinali kusanganizidwa pamakambitsirano a arabi.
M’buku lake lakuti The World of the Talmud, Morris Adler akuti: “Mphunzitsi wanzeru anali kudukiza mkangano wautali ndiponso wovuta wa zamalamulo mwa kusinthira kunkhani ina yosavuta kwambiri ndiponso yolimbikitsa. . . . Ndiye chifukwa chake timapeza kuti nthano zakale ndi mbiri yakale, sayansi yapanthaŵiyo ndi miyambi, mafotokozedwe a nkhani za m’Baibulo ndi mbiri ya anthu, ulaliki ndi maphunziro a zachipembedzo zili zolukanalukana kukhala chimene chingaoneke ngati msanganizo wachilendo wa mawu opanda dongosolo kwa wosadziŵa kalikonse ponena za masukuluwo.” Kwa akatswiri amaphunziro a m’masukuluwo, kusinthira kunkhani zina kumeneku kunali ndi chifuno chake ndipo kunali kogwirizana ndi mfundo imene anali kukambitsirana. Halakah ndi Haggadah zinali ngati njerwa zomangira nyumba yatsopano imene inali kumangidwa m’masukulu a arabi.
Kukonzedwa kwa ma Talmud Aŵiri
M’kupita kwa nthaŵi, likulu la arabi ku Palestina linasamukira ku Tiberiya. Masukulu ena aakulu anali ku Sepphoris, Kaisareya, ndi ku Luda. Koma chifukwa cha kuloŵa pansi kwa zachuma, mavuto osatha a zandale, ndipo pomalizira pake kupondereza ndi chizunzo chochitidwa ndi Chikristu cha mpatuko zinachititsa kuti anthu ochuluka asamukire kumalo ena okhala ndi Ayuda ambiri cha Kummaŵa ku Babulo.
Kwa zaka mazana ambiri, ophunzira a ku Babulo anali kupita ku Palestina kukaphunzitsidwa ndi arabi m’masukuluwo. Mmodzi mwa ophunzirawo anali Abba ben Ibo, wotchedwanso kuti Abba Arika—Abba wamtali—koma amene pambuyo pake anadzangodziŵika kuti Rab. Anabwerera ku Babulo cha ku ma 219 C.E. ataphunzitsidwa ndi Judah ha-Nasi, ndipo zimenezi zinapangitsa midzi ya Ayuda ya ku Babulo kukhala yofunika pazinthu zauzimu. Rab anatsegula sukulu ku Sura, malo okhala ndi Ayuda ambiri koma akatswiri ochepa amaphunziro. Mbiri yake inakopa ophunzira okhazikika 1,200 ku sukulu yake, ndipo enanso zikwi zambiri anali kupezekapo m’miyezi yachiyuda ya Adara ndi Eluli. Mnzake wa Rab wotchuka, Samuel, anatsegula sukulu ku Nehardea. Masukulu ena aakulu anatsegulidwa ku Pumbeditha ndi ku Mehoza.
Tsopano panalibenso chifuno chopitira ku Palestina, popeza munthu anatha kuphunzitsidwa ndi akatswiri otchuka ku Babulo. Kupangidwa kwa Mishnah monga malemba odziimira paokha kunapangitsa kuti masukulu a ku Babulo akhale odziimira paokha. Ngakhale kuti tsopano njira zophunzitsira ku Palestina zinasiyana ndi za ku Babulo, kulankhulana pafupipafupi ndi kusinthana aphunzitsi kunasungitsa umodzi wa masukuluwo.
Chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana lachinayi ndi kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana lachisanu C.E., zinthu zinavuta kwambiri kwa Ayuda a ku Palestina. Ziletso ndi chizunzo mu ulamuliro womakulawo wa Dziko Lachikristu lampatuko zinachititsa kuti pomalizira pake athetseretu Sanhedrin ndi mpando wa Nasi (kholo) podzafika chaka cha 425 C.E. Choncho a Amoraim a ku Palestina anayamba kusonkhanitsa chidule cha makambitsirano a m’masukulu kuti nkhanizo zikhale m’buku limodzi pofuna kuti zikhale zosungika. Buku limeneli, lokonzedwa mofulumira chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana lachinayi C.E., linadzadziŵika kuti Talmud ya ku Palestina.b
Pamene masukulu a ku Palestina anali kutha, a Amoraim a ku Babulo anali kufika pachimake cha maluso awo. Abaye ndi Raba anasintha makambitsiranowo kukhala ocholoŵana kwambiri ndiponso ovuta kwambiri amene anadzakhala chitsanzo cha njira yopendera nkhani za mu Talmud. Kenako, Ashi, mkulu wa sukulu ya ku Sura (371-427 C.E.), anayamba kusonkhanitsa ndi kukonza mfundo zotchulidwa pamakambitsiranowo. Malinga nkunena kwa Steinsaltz, iye anachita zimenezi “poopa kuti, nkhani zokambidwa pakamwa zambirimbirizo zingangozimiririka ngati zikhala zopanda dongosolo.”
Zolembedwa zambirimbiri zimenezi sizikanalinganizidwa ndi munthu mmodzi kapena ngakhale mbadwo umodzi. Nthaŵi ya a Amoraim inatha m’zaka za zana lachisanu C.E. ku Babulo, koma ntchito yomaliza yokonza Talmud ya ku Babulo inapitirizabe mpaka m’zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chimodzi C.E. ndi gulu lotchedwa kuti Saboraim, mawu achiaramaiki otanthauza “ofotokoza,” kapena kuti “eni malingaliro.” Akonzi omalizira ameneŵa anagwirizanitsa mfundo zikwi zambiri zosamalizidwa ndiponso makambitsirano a arabi a zaka mazana ambiri, kupangitsa Talmud ya ku Babulo kukhala ndi kalembedwe ndi kakonzedwe kosiyana ndi zolemba zonse zoyambirira zachiyuda.
Kodi Talmud Inakwaniritsanji?
Arabi a Talmud anali ndi cholinga chopereka umboni wakuti buku la Mishnah linachokera kumene kunachokera Malemba Achihebri. Koma chifukwa ninji? Jacob Neusner anati: “Nkhani yodziŵika inali yokhudza ulamuliro wa Mishnah. Koma nkhani yaikulu inasintha kukhala yokhudza ulamuliro wa amuna anzeruwo.” Kuti achirikize ulamuliro umenewu, mzere uliwonse wa Mishnah, nthaŵi zina mawu alionse, anapendedwa, kupeza vuto lake, kufotokozedwa, ndi kuwagwirizanitsa ndi ena m’njira ina yake. Neusner ananena kuti mwa njira imeneyi arabi “anasintha cholinga cha Mishnah kukhala china.” Ngakhale kuti linapangidwa monga buku palokha, Mishnah tsopano inagaŵikana pakati. Chifukwa cha zimenezi, bukulo linapangidwanso, kukhalanso ndi tanthauzo lina.
Buku latsopano limeneli—Talmud—linakwaniritsa chifuno cha arabi. Iwo ndiwo anakhazikitsa malamulo oliphunzirira, choncho linaphunzitsa anthu kulingalira monga arabi. Arabi ankakhulupirira kuti kaphunziridwe ndi kapendedwe kawo kanali kolingana ndi maganizo a Mulungu. Kuphunzira Talmud kunakhala cholinga mwa icho chokha, mtundu wa kulambira—kugwiritsira ntchito nzeru m’njira imene amati njotsanzira Mulungu. Kwa mibadwo yambiri yamtsogolo, buku la Talmud lenilenilo linali kudzaphunziridwa mwa njira imodzimodziyi. Chotsatirapo chake? Wolemba mbiri Cecil Roth analemba kuti: “Talmud . . . inapereka [kwa Ayuda] chisonkhezero chachikhalire chimene chinawasiyanitsa ndi ena, ngakhalenso mphamvu yawo yokana kusintha ndiponso kugwirizana kwawo. Nkhani zake zinawapangitsa kukhala anzeru, ndipo zinawapatsa . . . mphamvu yozindikira kusiyana kwa zinthu kovuta kukuona. . . . Buku la Talmud linapatsa Ayuda ozunzidwa a m’Nyengo Zapakati dziko lina lothaŵirako . . . Linawapatsa dziko lawo, limene anatha kupita nalo kulikonse pamene anataya dziko lawo lenileni.”
Pophunzitsa ena kulingalira monga arabi, Talmud yakhaladi ndi mphamvu. Koma funso kwa onse—Ayuda ndi osakhala Ayuda omwe—ndi ili, Kodi buku la Talmud limasonyezadi malingaliro a Mulungu?—1 Akor. 2:11-16.
[Mawu a M’munsi]
a Kuti mudziŵe zambiri ponena za kukonzedwa kwa Mishnah ndi nkhani zake, onani nkhani yakuti: “Mishnah ndi Chilamulo cha Mulungu kwa Mose” mu Nsanja ya Olonda ya November 15, 1997.
b Talmud ya ku Palestina imadziŵika kwambiri ndi dzina lakuti Talmud ya ku Yerusalemu. Komabe, dzina limeneli nlosayenerera, chifukwa chakuti Ayuda sanali kuloledwa kuloŵa m’Yerusalemu kwanthaŵi yaitali imene a Amoraim anakhalapo.
[Bokosi patsamba 31]
Ma Talmud Aŵiriwo—Kodi Ngofanana Motani?
Mawu achihebri akuti “Talmud” amatanthauza “phunzira” kapena “kuphunzira.” A Amoraim a ku Palestina ndi a ku Babulo anali ndi cholinga cha kuphunzira, kapena kuti kupenda, Mishnah. Ma Talmud onse aŵiri (Talmud ya ku Palestina ndi ya ku Babulo) amachita zimenezi, koma kodi ngofanana motani? Jacob Neusner analemba kuti: “Talmud yoyamba imapenda umboni, yachiŵiri imafufuza ulamuliro; yoyamba imasumikadi pacholinga chake, yachiŵiri imapyola kwambiri pamenepo.”
Kukonza kosamalitsa kwambiri kumeneko kwa Talmud ya ku Babulo sikunangoipangitsa kukhala yaikulu kwambiri koma inakhalanso yozama ndiponso yokhala ndi malingaliro ndi kapendedwe kakuya. Mawu akuti “Talmud” akatchulidwa, kaŵirikaŵiri amatanthauza Talmud ya ku Babulo. Imeneyi ndiyo Talmud imene yaphunziridwa kwambiri ndiponso imene ambiri athirirapo ndemanga m’zaka mazana onsewa. Malinga ndi kaonedwe ka Neusner, Talmud ya ku Palestina “ili ntchito yochitidwa mwakhama,” ndipo Talmud ya ku Babulo “ili ntchito yochitidwa mwaluntha.”